

































By Ewing Galloway, N.Y 







All by Ewing Galloway, N Y. 


You Can Make Pictures Like These 


T HE camera is not the mysterious, difficult to operate instrument that many sup¬ 
pose. It is simply a machine designed to take pictures, and as is true for all ma¬ 
chines the operator must be able to recognize its various parts and understand 
what they do in making the whole thing work. We shall show in the first few pages that 
follow that such an understanding is easily and quickly attained, for the camera is essen¬ 
tially a very simple machine. 

An automobile, for example, is much more complicated to operate. Imagine how con¬ 
fused you would be if you were to step into a car for the first time, unable to recognize 
which part was the clutch, the brake, the gear shift, the choke, the ignition, etc. Few peo¬ 
ple would be so foolhardy as to try to drive under such circumstances, and yet many 
people attempt to take pictures without knowing one end of the camera from the other. 
Is it any wonder that they do not get good results? 

This little booklet doesn't try to persuade you to make hard work out of your photo¬ 
graphy. It is written for those who want to snap their pictures as quickly and as pain¬ 
lessly as possible and go on with their fun. 

You can do just that and still get surprisingly good results, by simply remembering 
the few dos and don'ts which are given in the following pages. 

With these points in mind you can be sure of good technical results, that is, pictures 
which are sharp, clear, and brilliant. But we have also included here many helpful 
pointers on how to make your pictures more interesting and attractive. 

Pictures become interesting when they tell their story clearly and well. Bad back¬ 
grounds, bad lighting, bad posing, bad camera angles, and too much camera conscious¬ 
ness on the part of your subject, are just a few of the things which can spoil the story¬ 
telling quality of your pictures. It is really quite easy to learn to avoid such things, and 
when you do avoid them you will be astounded at how much more exciting and satisfy¬ 
ing your pictures will be. 

There is one other important factor in picture making. It has to do with the use of 
imagination and originality in selecting your subject matter, your lighting, your camera 
angles, etc. Under ordinary frontal lighting the shot of the sailboat (above) would be 
just another picture. But, by shooting toward the sun in the late afternoon, the photog¬ 
rapher has obtained a striking thing. In various other ways each of the pictures on this 
page have been made interesting and attractive. 

You can do exactly as well by simply learning a few easy "tricks of the trade," de¬ 
scribed in the following pages. So cast off the mistaken idea that good photographs are 
difficult to make. Spend an hour reading this booklet and a few rolls of film practicing 
what you learn. We know you will be delighted with the result. 



Sheckell, Black Star 


By Ewing Galloway, N Y. 


m 

Black Star 


By Ewing Galloway, N Y. 






Good Vacatioo Soapshots 

How to Get Them 

By George Allen Young 


CONTENTS 


You Can Make Pictures Like These. . 

Your Camera is Like One of These . 

Camera List.—.-.— 

Camera Adjustments _ _ 

The Lens Opening.....-._.. 

Perform This Experiment_ _ _ 

Depth of Focus...________ 

Exposure 

How and Why____ 

How to Judge -........ 

Setting the Exposure_ _ _ 

Exposure Table _______ 

What Film to Use__ 

When to Use Filters _ ........ 

How to Recognise Your Failures. 

Pictures of People 

Lighting ........ 

Backgrounds ___ 

Posing and Expression ......... 

The Portrait Attachment 

Groups______ 

Action Pictures .......... 

Scenic Views ....... 

Composition...... 

Animal Pictures .... ...... 

Camp Fire Pictures _______ 

Flowers _________ 

Pictures for Fun ...... 

Making the Most of Your Pictures _ 

Prints for Sale . ...... 


1 


.. 11 

_ 12 

14 

. _ 15 

_ 16 

18 

. 19 

20 

21 

22 

24 

28 

30 

. 32 

.. 38 

_ 40 

. 42 

.. 45 

_ 46 

48 


Explanatory Illustrations by 
P. Douglas Anderson, F.R.P.S. 

Copyright, 1937, by 
Camera Craft Publishing Company 
425 Bush St., San Francisco, Cal. 

Printed in the United States of America by 
The Pacific Gravure Co., San Francisco 

Cover—A Natural Color Kodachrome Photograph 




[ 2 ] 


cn co oo ao- cn 



































Your Camera 

There is no point in boring and confusing the reader with any attempt 
to describe in minute fashion the many types and makes of cameras 
which are on the market today. All that is necessary is that the reader 
should clearly understand what kind of a camera he now owns. As we 
go along we will point out exactly what each kind of camera can and 
cannot do. That is the important thing to know about any camera. 

On this page we want to arrive at as simple a classification of cameras 
as possible. To that end we show the principal types of cameras avail¬ 
able. By looking at these illustrations and then referring to the list of 
cameras given on the following page, you can easily determine which 
kind of camera you have. But, as we have said, the important thing is to 
determine whether you have a camera that is capable of taking any and 
every kind of picture, or whether there are certain kinds of pictures which 
your camera cannot take. 

The versatility of any camera is determined by two things. The 
"speed" of the lens, and the range of shutter speeds which the camera 
has. We will shortly explain just what is meant by lens and shutter 
speeds, but for the moment the point is this: If you have a box or fixed- 
focus folding camera, or a focusing scale folding camera whose fastest 
shutter speed is 1/100th sec. or less, and whose largest lens opening is 
F: 11 or less, you must operate in accordance with the following rules: 
1. Take snapshots only in bright sunlight. 2. Never take pictures of mov¬ 
ing objects. 3. With box or fixed-focus cameras do not photograph any¬ 
thing closer than 10 feet from the camera. 4. With folding focusing scale 
cameras never photograph anything closer than the shortest distance 
marked on the focusing scale. 

If your camera has a maximum lens opening of F:4.5 or larger and 
shutter speeds up to 1/500th second you can be sure that there is vir¬ 
tually nothing which you cannot photograph, once you have learned to 
adjust and handle your camera properly. 

There is a large group of cameras which lie in between the two groups 
mentioned above. They have shutter speeds up to 1/200th or 1/300th of 
a second, and maximum lens opening of F:6.3, or F:4.5. Just what can and 
cannot be done with cameras of this range will become clear in the 
pages to follow. 

In the list below the name of the camera is given in the first column. 
Most cameras will have their name either engraved on some metal part 
of the camera or embossed on the leather covering. The name occurs in 
such a variety of places that it is impossible to give details of its location 
here. In the second column the ”F" value of the largest lens opening is 
listed. This is an indication of the "speed" of the lens. If only one number 
is given that means that no way is provided for altering the lens open- 

13] 











CARL ZEISS, INC., 485 FIFTH AVE., NEW YORK 

728 So. Hill Street, Los Angeles 


SUPER IKONTA A 
Take* IS picture* l%" x 
2>4". Zcitt Te«ar F/3.5 
leru. Compur shutter 
1-1/500th second, T. & B. 


SUPER IKONTA B 
Takes pictures 2'4" x 
2 , / 4 ". Choice of Zeiss 
Tessar F/2.S or F/3.5 
Compur shutter with 
speeds l-l/400th second, 
T. t B. 


Equipped with super-imposed image range¬ 
finder and Carl Zeiss lenses, these precision 
cameras permit needle-sharp focusing and 
assure brilliant negatives. There are nine 
auto-focusing models: 4 Super Ikonta, 3 
Contax, the Super Nettel, and Nettax. 


SUPER IKONTA MODELS are foremost 
among roll-film cameras. Fitted with Zeiss 
Tessar lens and dependable Compur shut¬ 
ter. Lens speeds from F/2.8 to F/4.5 and 
negative sizes from I %" x 2" to 2*/ 2 " x 

w. 

CONTAX IS THE UNIVERSAL CAM¬ 
ERA. Accommodating as it does 14 inter¬ 
changeable Zeiss lenses of varying focal 
lengths, it can be easily and quickly adapted 
to any phase of photography. The Contax 
III has a built-in photoelectric exposure 
meter. 


CONTAX III 
Takes 36 pictures I'/ 2 " 
x I" on standard 35mm. 
film. Photo-electric ex¬ 
posure meter. Focal 
plane shutter speeds to 
I-1250th second. 14 in¬ 
terchangeable Zeiss 
lenses. 


25 MODELS TO CHOOSE FROM. Sim¬ 
ple roll-film cameras, auto-focusing 
models, reflex types, plate and film-pack 
cameras. Whatever your requirements you 
will find a Zeiss Ikon model to suit your 
purse and purpose. See them at your 
dealer's. Write for catalog. 



ing. If two or three numbers are given that means that 
the lens can be set for each of those lens openings. If 
a single number is given followed by the word "iris," 
that means that the lens is constructed with an iris dia¬ 
phragm and can be set for any lens opening smaller 
than the one indicated by the number. "T" and "B" 
indicate Time and Bulb which will be explained later. 
If only one number appears it means that the shutter 
is constructed to operate at only that shutter speed 
and no other. If there are two numbers with a dash 
between, that shutter will give the two exposures indi¬ 
cated plus a range of exposures in between those two. 

The fourth column contains the designations used 
by the Eastman Kodak Company and the Agfa Ansco 
Corporation to indicate the film sizes used by each 
camera. 


Box Cameras 


Maximum 
Lens Opening 
”F" Number 

Shutter 

Speeds 

Film Size Used 
Eastman Agfa 

Baby Brownie 

15 

1/25 

127 

A8 

620 Brownie Jr. 

14 <S 20 

T 1/25 

620 

PB20 

620 Brownie 

12.5 & 18 

T 1/25 

620 

PB20 

616 Brownie Jr. 

14 & 20 

T 1/25 

616 

PD6 

616 Brownie 

12.5 <S 18 

T 1/25 

616 

PD6 

Cadet Spec. 

14 

1/25 

127 

A8 

Cadet 20 

14 

1/25 

120 

B2 

Cadet 16 

14 

1/25 

116 

D6 

Sure Shot Reg. 

15 

T 1/25 

120 

B2 

Sure Shot Spec. 15 

T 1/25 

120 

B2 

Sure Shot Reg. 

15 

T 1/25 

116 

D6 


Fix-Focus Folding Cameras 


Bullet 

15 

1/25 

127 

A8 

VP Jiffy 

11 & 16 

B 1/25 

127 

A8 

620 Kodak Jr. 

11-16-22 

T 1/25 

620 

PB20 

Ready Set 20 

14 

T 1/25 

120 

B2 

Ready Set 16 

14 

T 1/25 

116 

D6 

Plenax 

14 Iris 

T 1/25 

116 

D6 

Plenax 

14 " 

T 1/25 

120 

B2 


Focusing Scale Cameras 


620 Jiffy 

11-16-22 

T 1/25 

620 

PB20 

620 Kodak Jr. 

11 Iris 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

620 

PB20 

620 Kodak Jr. 

6.3 " 

T <5 B 1/25-1/100 

620 

PB20 

620 Kodak 

6.3 " 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

620 

PB20 

620 Kodak 

4.5 " 

T <S B 1-1/250 

620 

PB20 

Plenax 20 

11 “ 

T 1/25-1/100 

120 

B20 

Plenax 20 

6.3 ” 

T1/25-1/100 

120 

B20 

Ikonta C 

6.3 " 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

120 

B20 

Ikonta C Spec. 

4.5 “ 

T&B 1-1/250 

120 

B20 

Brilliant 

4.5 " 

„ T&B 1-1/300 

120 

B20 

616 Jiffy 

11-16-22 

T 1/25 

616 

PD6 

616 Kodak Jr 

11 Iris 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

616 

PD6 

616 Kodak Jr. 

6.3 " 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

616 

PD6 

616 Kodak 

11 " 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

616 

PD6 

616 Kodak 

6.3 ” 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

616 

PD6 


[ 4 ] 















Maximum 


Lens Opening 
*T" Number 

Shutter 

Speeds 

Film Size Used 
Eastman Agfa 

616 Kodak 

4.5 " 

T&B 1-1/250 

616 

PD6 

Plenax 16 

11 ” 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

116 

D6 

Plenax 16 

6.3 M 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

116 

D6 

Ikonta D 

6.3 “ 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

116 

D6 

Ikonta D Spec. 

4.5 " 

T <SB 1-1/200 

116 

D6 

3A Kodak 

6.3 " 

T 1/10-1/100 

122 

G6 

Recomar 18 

4.5 " 

T <SB 1-1/250 

Pack 520 20 

Maximar A 

4.5 ** 

T (SB 1-1/250 

Pack 520 20 

Ideal A 

4.5 “ 

T <SB 1-1/250 

Pack 520 20 

Recomar 33 

4.5 " 

T (SB 1-1/200 

Pack 541 41 

Maximar B 

4.5 “ 

T <SB 1-1/200 

Pack 541 41 

Ideal B 

4.5 ” 

T&B 1-1/200 

Pack 541 41 

Super Ikonta A 

3.5 " 

T&B 1-1/500 

120 

. B2 

Super Baldax 

2.9 ” 

T&B 1-1/400 

120 

B2 

Super Baldax 

2.9 " 

T&B 1-1/400 

120 

B2 

Super Ikonta B 

2.8 “ 

T&B 1-1/400 

120 

B2 

Super Ikonta C 

4.5 " 

T&B 1-1/400 

120 

B2 

Super Ikonta D 

4.5 " 

T&B 1-1/250 

116 

D6 

Fixed-Focus Miniature Cameras 


Bantam 

11 

1/25 

828 


Bantam 

6.3 & 11 

T 1/25 

828 


Focusing Scale Miniature Cameras 


Argus 

4.5 Iris 

T&B 1/25-1/200 

135 

Leica 

Type 

Marvel 

4.5 ’’ 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

135 

Baldina 

2.9 H 

T&B 1-1/500 

135 

** 

Weltina 

2.8 " 

T&B 1-1/500 

135 

" 

Retina 

3.5 “ 

T&B 1-1/500 

135 

** 

Leica E 

3.5 “ 

B 1/20-1/500 

F.P. 135 

>■ 

Robot 

2.8 ** 

B 1/2-1/500 

Special 

Vollenda 

3.5 " 

T&B 1-1/500 

127 

A8 

Baby Ikonta 

3.5 ” 

T&B 1-1/500 

127 

A8 

Foth Derby 3.5 or 2.5 

B 1/25-1/500 

F.P. 127 

A8 

620 Duo 

3.5 " 

T&B 1-1/500 

620 

PB20 

Ikonta A 

4.5 ” 

T&B 1/25-1/100 

120 

B2 

Ikonta A 

3.5 " 

T&B 1-1/500 

120 

B2 


Maximum 
Lens Opening 
“F" Number 

Shutter Film Size Used 

Speeds Eastman Agfa 

Baldax 

2.9 " 

T&B 1-1/500 

120 

B2 

Welti 

2.8 ** 

T&B 1-1/500 

120 

B2 

Miniature Cameras with Range 
Finder Geared to Lens 



Super Weltina 

2.8 Iris 

T&B 1-1/500 

135 

Leica 

Type 

Super Baldina 

2.9 " 

T&B 1-1/500 

135 

Leica D 

Several 

B 1/20-1/500 F.P. 

135 

M 

Leica F 

Several 

■T&B 1-1/500 F.P. 

135 


Leica G 

Several 

T&B 1-1/1000 F.P. 

135 

Contax 

Type 

Super Nettel 

2.8 Iris 

B 1/5-1/1000 F.P. 

235 

Nettax 

2.8 “ 

B 1/5-1/1000 F.P. 

235 

Contax II 

Several 

B 1/2-1/1250 F.P. 

235 

*• 

Contax III 

Several 

B 1/2-1/1250 F.P. 

235 

•• 

Bantam Special 2 Iris 

T&B 1-1/500 

828 


Super Ikonta 

3.5 ” 

T&B 1-1/500 

120 

B2 

Super Baldina 

2.9 “ 

T&B 1-1/500 

120 

B2 

Super Weltina 

2.8 ” 

T&B 1-1/500 

120 

B2 

Single Lens Reflecting Cameras 



National Graflex 3.5 Iris 

B 1/25-1/500 F.P. 

120 

B2 

Noviflex 

2.9 “ 

B 1/25-1/500 F.P. 

120 

B2 

Primarflex 

2.7 " 

T&B 1-1/1000 F.P. 

120 

B2 

Korelle 

2.8 " 

B 1/25-1/500 F.P. 

120 

B2 

Graflex 

Various 

T 1/10-1/1000 F.P. 

Various 

Speed Graphic Several 

T 1/10-1/1000 F.P. 

Various 

Exakta 2.8 or 2 Iris 

T&B 6-1/500 F.P. 

127 

A8 

Twin Lens Reflecting Cameras 



Rolleiflex 

3.5 Iris 

T&B 1-1/500 

120 

B2 

Rolleicord 

3.5 " 

T&B 1-1/500 

120 

B2 

Ikoflex I 

4.5 “ T&B 1/25-1/100 

120 

B2 

Ikoflex II 

3.5 “ 

T&B 1-1/500 

120 

B2 

Fothflex 

3.5 ” 

B 2-1/500 F.P. 

120 

B2 

Superb 

3.5 " 

T&B 1-1/250 

120 

B2 

Contaflex 

1.5 “ 

B 1/2-1/1000 F.P. 

235 

Contax 




Model G with F:2 
Summar Speed lens 

The Original Miniature Candid Camera 


and the Leica go hand in hand. Wherever 
you go, and whatever you do, keep a Leica 
with you so that it will be ever ready to 
capture the fleeting scene. The crack of 
a bat on a ball, a diver in mid air, a thor¬ 
oughbred thundering down the home 
stretch—nothing is too fast for the Leica. 

Use this camera and you will make va¬ 
cation snapshots such as you never be¬ 
fore dreamed possible. 

Write—NOW—for full details of this re¬ 
markable camera and dramatic examples 
of Leica photography—FREE! 


Vacation 


E. LEITZ, INC., Dept. 141, 730 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. 









Camera Adjustments 


Something of the imaginary complications of the camera are immediately dispelled by the 
statement that even the most elaborate cameras require only three adjustments. These adjust¬ 
ments are: 

1. Set the shutter speed. 

2. Set the lens opening. 

3. Focus. 


That is all that is required, and the intelligent handling of the camera depends entirely upon 
learning how and why to make these three adjustments. The simplest kinds of cameras elimin¬ 
ate even these three adjustments, but at the cost of drastically limiting the variety of pictures 
which can be taken, as we have learned. 

THE SHUTTER. The shutter is a mechanism which opens when the shutter release is pressed, 
thus permitting light from the object being photographed to reach the film, and then closes 
again. It is constructed so that it can be set to perform this action in a definite time interval. Thus 
we see that the shutter regulates the length of time that the light may act on the film. It is neces¬ 
sary to control this length of time for two reasons. First, this time must be short enough so that no 
movement occurs in the object being photographed during the time the shutter is open. If the 
subject moves or if the camera is moved while the shutter is open a blurred picture will result. 
Imagine, for instance, that you are taking a picture of a man while he is raising his hand from 
his waist to his head. If your shutter is open all the while the action is taking place your film will 
obviously receive a weak picture of the hand at each stage of the movement so that the hand will 
be blurred, even though the rest of the picture may be sharp and clear. 

Second, the length of time the shutter is open will control the amount of light reaching the film. 
It is self-evident that twice as much light will reach the film in one second as in one-half second. 
The amount of light reaching the film must be controlled in order to insure proper exposure. The 
reasons for this will be made clear when we take up the subject of exposure. We will also shortly 
see that the lens opening also helps to control the amount of light reaching the film. 

We see, then, that the primary function of the shutter is to control the length of time that light 
is allowed to reach the film, so that this time may be short enough to prevent blurring of the pic¬ 
ture due to movement of object or camera. And that it also functions in conjunction with the lens 
opening to regulate the amount of light reaching the film. 

There are two kinds of shutters in general use today. These are known as the Between-the- 
Lens shutter and the Focal Plane shutter. The names of the shutters refer to their position in the 
camera. The first named consists of a series of thin overlapping metal leaves. When the shutter is 
snapped these leaves spfing apart and then close again in the length of time for which the shut¬ 
ter has been set. (See two uppermost illustrations on facing page.) The Focal Plane shutter is lo¬ 
cated just in front of the focal plane of the camera. This is the plane at which the lens brings the 
image to a focus, that is, it is the position in wFuch the film is held. This shutter consists of a cur¬ 
tain with slits of varying sizes. When an exposure is made the slit is drawn across the face of the 
film, allowing it to be exposed to light. By using larger or smaller slits, and by drawing the cur¬ 
tain fast or slow, varying amounts of exposure can be given. 


The illustration on this page shows cameras equipped with a simple and an elaborate be- 
tween-the-lens shutter. White arrows point to the shutter settings so the shutter settings can be 
easily recognized. To set your camera for any desired shutter speed all you need do is to move 
the pointer or turn the flange, as the case may be, until the desired number indicating the shutter 
speed is opposite the marker. For example, the camera at the left is now set for an exposure of 

1/100th of a second, the one at the right for 1 /25th of a 
second. B and T stand for Bulb and Time. These are only 
used when a very long exposure is required, and must 
never be used unless the camera is on a tripod or other 
solid support. When the shutter is set for Bulb it will re¬ 
main open as long as pressure is kept on the shutter 
release, and will close as soon as pressure is withdrawn. 
When the shutter is set for Time it will open at the first 
pressure on the shutter release and remain open until a 
second pressure is applied. Pressure on the shutter re¬ 
lease must be withdrawn before a second pressure can 
be applied. 



[ 6 ] 




The Lens Openinq 

What F Numbers Mean 

The device which makes it possible to control the size of the lens 
opening is known as an iris diaphragm. The two uppermost illustrations 
show a shutter and lens assembly with the lens removed so that the iris 
diaphragm is visible. Notice that in the top picture the diaphragm is al¬ 
most wide open while in the picture just below it is almost closed. The 
size of the opening in the iris diaphragm is set by moving a pointer or by 
turning a flange. The third illustration from the top shows these settings 
on typical modern cameras with white arrows pointing to the lens set¬ 
tings. Notice that the camera on the left is set at F: 11, the other at F:22. 

The opening in the diaphragm is commonly referred to as the "aper¬ 
ture” or the "stop.” Thus a photographer will say that he gave an expo¬ 
sure of 1 /25th of a second at stop F:8, meaning that the shutter speed was 
1 /25th of a second, and the iris diaphragm was set at the point marked 
F:8. What is the meaning of these "F” numbers? 

First let us get clearly in mind that the iris diaphragm is placed in the 
lens so that we can control the amount of light which passes through the 
lens to the film. If the sun is bright we use a small stop, so that the film 
will not get too much exposure; if the sunlight is weak, we use a larger 
stop and therefore permit more but weaker light to reach the film to 
insure enough exposure. Quite obviously we must have some means of 
knowing the exposure value of the amount of light we are letting through 
—the system of "F" markings gives us that information. Because light 
diminishes in intensity as it travels, we must take into account the dis¬ 
tance from lens to film in calculating the exposure value, or the light 
passing power of any stop. Now the distance which the light must travel 
from lens to film is determined by the focal length of the lens. This is the 
distance from the middle of the lens to the focal plane (position in which 
the film is held) when the lens is focused on an object 100 feet or more 
distant. At such a focus the lens is as close to the film as it can be and 
still produce a sharp image. The position and relation of each of these 
factors is shown diagrammatically in the drawing at the right. The actual 
exposure value or light passing power of any given aperture is therefore 
determined by the relation of the size of the lens opening to the focal 
length of the lens. It is this relation which is expressed by the "F" num¬ 
bers. That is, the "F” numbers are arrived at by dividing the focal length 
of the lens by the diameter of the lens opening. Further, it should be 
understood that the same "F” number will always give identical expo¬ 
sure value (light conditions remaining the same) regardless of the size 
of the lens. For example, suppose we have a very big lens with a focal 
length of 16 inches and an aperture of 4 inches, and a small lens with a 
focal length of 2 inches and an aperture of V 2 inch. Dividing the focal 
length by the diameter of the aperture, we have in the case of the big 
lens 16 4, which equals 4, and in the case of the small lens, 2 -r- V2. 

which also equals 4, so we see that both of these lenses when set to the 
aperture indicated have a speed of F:4 in spite of the great difference in 
their size. 

We still must explain how much the exposure is altered when we 
change from one stop to another, and what the relation is between shut¬ 
ter speeds and lens apertures. These matters will be discussed when we 
take up the subject of exposure. 

The simplest box cameras have no means of altering the lens aper¬ 
ture. Those with such an adjustment have a strip of metal with two or 
three holes of different size along its length. When the bar is pushed all 
the way down into the camera, the largest opening is in front of the lens. 
To bring the smaller openings in front of the lens the strip of metal is 
pulled outward as in the lower illustration to the right. 





[ 7 ] 





















Perform This Experiment 

We have now discussed the function of the shutter and the iris dia¬ 
phragm. To fix the action and relation of these two parts of the camera 
clearly in mind, perform the following experiment. Remove the back from 
your camera and set it on some solid object such as a table so that the lens 
is pointing at a window. Then take a position so that you can look from the 
back of the camera through the lens, just as is being done in the illustration 
at the left. Set your shutter at various speeds and make exposures. You can 
then see exactly what the shutter does when an exposure is made, and will 
get a clear idea of how very quickly it operates. Then set your shutter on 
time and press the shutter release so that the shutter opens and remains 
open. Now move the lever or flange which sets the diaphragm opening. Set 
it first to the largest opening and then to the smallest opening, noting the 
change each time by looking through the back of the camera. Notice also 
how much more light comes through the lens with a larger opening than 
with a small one. Play around with these settings until you are sure that 
their every detail is perfectly clear in your mind. 


Depth of Focus 

Aside from regulating the volume of light passing through the lens, the size of the aperture 
(F number) used has one other effect. It regulates the depth of focus which will be obtained in 
the finished picture. When we say a picture has a great depth of focus, we mean that objects 
close to the camera and objects far away from the camera are both in sharp focus. The picture 
on the right below has great depth of focus. Notice that the cards placed at 10, 15, 25, 50 and 75 
feet from the camera are all in sharp focus, even the fence beyond is also sharp. The picture at 
the left below has much less depth of focus. Only the cards placed at 15 and 25 feet from the 
camera are sharp, all the others being blurred because they are out of focus. Notice that the pic¬ 
ture at the right with great depth of focus was taken at aperture F:32, and that the picture at the 
left with little depth of focus was taken at F:4.5. We can see, therefore, that the smaller the aper¬ 
ture used (larger F numbers) the greater the depth of focus. The larger the aperture used (smaller 
F numbers) the less the depth of focus. Therefore, if you wish to obtain as much depth of focus as 
possible, set your lens to the smallest aperture (largest F number) which your lens has. Of course 
it is not always possible to use the smallest aperture for if the light is not bright, or if the subject 
is in motion so that you have to use a fast shutter speed you may not be able to obtain enough 
exposure at the small aperture. This question will be fully discussed under exposure. In general 
the photographer should try to obtain as much depth of focus as possible so that his picture will 
be sharp and clean cut in all its parts. However, in pictures in which one object is all important, 
such as is the case with portraits, it is often advisable to work for less depth of focus so that back¬ 
grounds will be out of focus. The figure will then have more prominence because it is the only 
object in the picture in sharp focus. 

[ 8 ] 

F4.5. F;1 l F-32 




Focusinq 


There is nothing much more annoying than to have some picture which 
you looked forward to seeing with keen anticipation, return from the fin¬ 
ishers looking like the one to the right—out of focus. Such an error is due 
solely to carelessness or a lack of familiarity with the handling of the 
camera. It is best avoided by practicing with your camera until the proper 
setting of it becomes automatic—just like driving an auto. A good way to 
check up on yourself is to memorize the fact that there are three camera 
adjustments which must be made. 1. Set the. shutter. 2. Set the lens. 3. Focus. 

Recite these quickly in your mind before shooting and many a much de¬ 
sired picture will be saved. 

As we have stated before, box cameras and fixed-focus folding cam¬ 
eras require no focusing. If you obtain an out-of-focus picture with such a 
camera it is because the camera was used too close to the subject. Remem¬ 
ber such cameras cannot be used closer than 10 feet. Some of the more 
recent box cameras have a lever or snap on the front of the camera which, 
when switched to the side marked 5 ft., permits taking pictures at that 
distance. 

There are four principal types of focusing arrangements. These are known as the focusing 
scale, the focusing lens mount, ground glass focusing, and range finder focusing. The first two 
named are really different forms of the same thing. The photographer estimates the distance 
from camera to object and then sets a pointer on a scale so that the pointer points to the proper 
number of feet (see Fig. 1). In the second type of focusing the adjustment is the same except that 
the scale is engraved on the lens barrel and the setting is made by revolving the lens barrel 
until.the appropriate figures are in position (see Fig. 2). In cameras with ground glass focusing 
the image of the object being photographed is seen in the same size as the final picture will be 
on the ground glass which is located at the base of the focusing hood (see Fig. 3). The photog¬ 
rapher simply moves the lens in and out until the image on the ground glass is sharp. This 
type of focusing has the advantage of permitting the photographer to actually see how much 
depth of focus he is getting in his picture. In range finder focusing one looks through a viewer 
such as is shown in Fig. 4. If the camera is out-of-focus two images are visible, one slightly to 
one side of the other. The focusing adjustment is turned one way or the other until these two 
images coincide. When they do the camera is in focus. This method of focusing is perhaps the 
most accurate of all for hand held cameras. 

There still remdins the question of what to focus on. In all pictures of people or animals focus 
on the eyes. In landscapes, architectural views, street scenes, etc., focus on the object which is 
to be the center of interest in your picture. A full discussion of what is meant by "center of inter¬ 
est" will be found in the section on Composition. 

19] 




Focusing Scale 


Focusing Lens Mount 




Ground Glass Focusing 


Range Finder Focusing 







Exposure 

Why and How 

It is of first importance for the photographer to have a clear understanding of just what takes 
place when a film is exposed in a camera, for without that knowledge it is difficult for him to 
intelligently judge what exposure to give. 

The total amount of effective exposure received by the film is controlled by three main fac¬ 
tors: the brightness of the object, the size of the lens aperture (F number used), and the time of 
exposure (shutter speed). When the light sensitive film is exposed to light and then processed, 
it turns dark in exact proportion to the amount of exposure received. The more exposure the 
darker it gets, the less exposure the lighter it remains. 

With these points in mind think of the film as a series of 100 extremely thin layers of light 
sensitive material laid one on top of the other. 

Imagine that we are photographing a grey card on which there is a spot that is almost pure 
white and another that is almost pure black. The card, therefore, stands as a simplified equiva¬ 
lent of all the pictures we might take. 

For the sake of simplicity, we assume also that the white spot on the card is 100 times brighter 
than the black spot and that the grey of the card is just in between, being half as bright as the 
white spot but twice as bright as the black spot. We set up a camera and give 100 units of expo¬ 
sure for this simplified picture. We use the term units of exposure because the brightness of the 
illumination on the card is not specified. If the card were brightly illuminated the unit of exposure 
would be very short, say 1 /500th second, in which case the total exposure time would be 1 /5th 
second. If the illumination is weak the unit of exposure might be large, say 1 second, in which 
case the total exposure would be 100 seconds. 

What happens? The white spot being 100 times brighter than the black one will affect 100 of 
the imaginary layers in the film, while for the same reason the black spot will affect but one 
layer. The grey card being in between will affect 50 layers. That is what happens when the 
exposure is correct. When this film is laid on a piece of photographic paper and printed by shin¬ 
ing a light through the film onto the paper, the dark portion of the film which corresponds to the 
white spot on the card will hold back the light so that only a very slight exposure will reach the 
paper. The light part of the film, corresponding to the black spot on the card, will let the light 
through. Therefore the paper will receive 100 units of exposure for the black spot and 1 unit of 
exposure for the white spot, and we will have a technically perfect print with the black spot 100 
times darker than the white spot just as it was in the original subject. 

Now let us see what happens if we over-expose. If we give 5 times as much exposure as 
before, that is 500 units, the white spot would then be able to affect 500 layers in the film. But 
since there are only 100 layers to be affected that is all it can do and the action stops there. The 
black spot will affect 5 times as many layers as before or 5 layers. But look what happens in the 
case of the grey tone. This will be able to affect 5 times as many layers as before. This is 50x5 
or 250 layers. But since there are only 100 layers to be affected, this also stops acting after 100 
layers have been affected. But notice that both the white spot and the grey of the card have 
affected the maximum of 100 layers. Consequently, they will be equally dark on the film. There¬ 
fore, when we come to make a print from this film the portions in the film corresponding to the 
white spot and the grey of the card will both hold back an equal amount of light. Thus it will be 
impossible to get a different amount of exposure on the photographic paper for the white spot 
and the grey of the card, and these two will therefore appear as the same tone in the print. Thus 
we see that over-exposure results in a loss of detail in the brighter portions of the picture. 

Let us see what happens if we under-expose. We will now give 1 /5th of the original exposure, 
or 20 units of exposure. The white spot will now affect 1 /5th as many layers as before, or 20 
layers. The grey of the card will affect 1 /5th of 50, or 5 layers. But as we saw at the start it took 
100 units of exposure for the black spot to affect one layer, so now it affects none at all. That 
means that the area which corresponds to the black spot will be entirely transparent on the film, 
carrying no image at all. We can see then that if a print were made from this film that the area 
corresponding to the grey card would print so dark that it would be almost impossible to dis¬ 
tinguish it from the black spot. It is plain, therefore, that under-exposure results in loss of detail 
in the darker portions of the subject. 

f 10] 


How to Judge Exposure 

We can now clearly understand why exposures must be approximately correct. The next 
question is, how are we to judge what exposure to give. 

Let us state at the outset that the most accurate way to determine exposure is by the use of 
an exposure meter. Virtually all professional photographers use such a meter, and the great 
majority of advanced amateur photographers do likewise. There are two main types of meters 
in general use today. These are known as the photo-electric type, and the visual extinction type 
of meter. Recommended photo-electric type meters are the Weston and the Photoscope, each 
selling at $22.50. It so happens that this publication comes out at a time when one of the popular 
extinction type meters has just been offered at a new low price. We refer to the Instoscope meter 
which used to sell at $6.00 and is now available at $2.60. Occupying a field all its own, the very 
handy and compact little Leudi meter is also recommended. This meter is about the size of a 
folder of matches and can be conveniently carried in the vest pocket. It is illustrated on another 
page, and is priced at $2.15, with case. 

The reader is cautioned against the idea that the mere purchase of an exposure meter in¬ 
stantly solves all exposure problems. He must learn to use the meter correctly, for unless that is 
done his results will probably be worse than before. Read the instruction sheet very carefully 
and if any point is not fully understood, go to your dealer and get further explanation. The writer 
is aware, however, that many of his readers will not have exposure meters, and consequently it 
is essential to supply an exposure guide that does not require the help of a meter. If the instruc¬ 
tions given below are carefully followed there is no reason why the reader should not get satis¬ 
factorily uniform exposures. 

These exposure recommendations are based upon a classification of the subjects which the 
amateur is likely to take into exposure groups. The essential thing to understand is just why a 
particular subject is placed in one group or the other. Once you have the reasons for that clearly 
in mind you will be able to recognize in which exposure group the subject you are taking 
should be placed. 

We assume at the outset that all pictures are taken on a day when the sky is clear and the 
sun bright. Later we will point out how much additional exposure to give on days when the sun 
is not bright. 

Assuming, then, that the sun is bright, the following additional factors affect the amount of 
exposure that must be given: 

1. The tone of the subject. Whether it is a dark house or a white house, for example. 2. The 
reflecting power of the surroundings. Water and the white sand of a beach will reflect much 
more light than green grass or trees. 3. The distance of the subject from the camera. The farther 
away it is the less the exposure required. This point often puzzles the beginner, because it seems 
to be the exact reverse of what it should be. To clear that up keep this point in mind. It is not 
actually the distance of the subject from the camera that is the determining factor, but the dis¬ 
tance of the lens from the film. When we focus on a distant subject our lens is moved back close 
to the film, and consequently the light has only a short distance to travel after passing the lens. 
When we focus on a near object our lens must be moved outward away from the film, so the 
light has to travel farther after passing the lens. That is the reason that more exposure is required 
for subjects close to the camera than for subjects far away. 4. The fourth factor affecting exposure 
is whether we are photographing the brightly illuminated side of our subjects or point the camera 
slightly toward the sun and photographing the shadow side. In the second case more exposure 
would be required. Let us now look at the illustrations which are provided as examples of the 
type of picture falling in each exposure groups. See page 13. 

Group 1—Recommended exposure l/25th second at F:22, or its equivalent. 

This group includes marine or beach scenes or distant landscapes without prominent dark 
objects in the foreground. The important point to keep in mind here is the phrase "without prom¬ 
inent dark objects in the foreground." In other words, to be placed in this classification, your 
subject should contain material which reflects a lot of light and must contain no objects of im¬ 
portance at all close to the camera. Nos. 1 and 2 are typical examples. No. 3 is included in the 
group to illustrate a deliberate departure from normal exposure. This subject would require a 
very long exposure indeed if the photographer desired to get detail in the foreground objects. 
But since he wanted the sunset-silhouette effect shown he exposed only for the sky, letting 
everything else go black in the print. Only in such a case could a subject with dark foreground 
such as this be included in a classification of normal exposures. 


cm 



Group 2—Recommended exposure 1 25th second at F:16 or its equivalent. 

This group includes ordinary landscapes with sky and principal object in foreground, and 
pictures of people on beaches, only when they are in direct sunlight and 10 feet or more from the 
camera No 5 shows a typical landscape. Nos. 4 and 6 illustrate the sort of pictures of people 
which fall in this classification. Notice that the light must be coming from behind the camera and 
falling directly on the subject. 

Group 3—Recommended exposure 1 25th second at Fill, or its equivalent. 

This group includes nearby landscapes with little sky, groups, street scenes, poi traits in direct 
sunlight, and pictures of people on beaches photographed from the shadow side with camera at 
least 10 feet distant. No. 8 serves as a typical example of a nearby landscape, street scene or 
group. Notice that the light conditions and the surroundings are virtually the same for No. 7 as 
for No. 4. But No. 7 is photographed from the shadow side and consequently requires more ex 
posure. No. 9 is a portrait made in direct sunlight but it requires more exposure than No. 6 for 
example, because the camera is closer. 

Group 4—Recommended exposure 1 25th second at F:4, or its equivalent. 

This group includes portraits in the open shade, shaded nearby scenes, and pictures of excep 
tionally dark objects in direct sunlight. The term ' open shade means that the subject is placed 
in the shade but without there being anything directly overhead such as a dense spreading tree 
or the roof of a porch. No. 10 is a typical example. Notice the delicacy of the lighting under such 
conditions and the fact that the subject does not squint because of sunlight striking the eyes. 
No. 11 shows a shaded nearby scene. No. 12 is an example of an exceptionally dark object in 
direct sunlight. A black Scotty dog would also fall in this classification. Such a subject requires 
additional exposurp because it reflects very little light. It would be better to have made No. 12 
without including the woman, for an exposure that will be sufficient for the donkeys would be 
too much for the strongly lignted face of the woman. In this case the photographer attempted to 
expose in between the two with the result that the donkeys are slightly under-exposed and the 
woman's face a bit ovfer-exposed. 

If the reader will study these classifications until they are clearly fixed in his mind he will be 
able to decide instantly what exposure to give for at least 95 per cent of the pictures he desires 
to take 

Please Note: When the day is cloudy, the recommended exposures should be doubled, and 
when the day is very dull, four times as much exposure should be given. (See next section on 
‘Setting the Exposure ") 

Setting the Exposure 

The reader will have noticed that in giving the recommended exposure for each group we 
stated such and such a shutter speed and stop or its equivalent. Obviously we cannot always 
use a shutter speed of 1 /25th second, for if our subject is in motion we would get a blurred pic 
ture. Also there are occasions in which it is desirable to use a small stop in order to get depth ol 
focus, and we must then use a slower shutter speed to make up for the light cut off by the smaller 
stop. What then are the relations between shutter speed and stop? 

The effect of changing the shutter speed is quite obvious. If we change from 1 /25th to 1 /50th 
our shutter is open for only half as long and consequently we are letting through only half as 
much light. If we change from 1/100th to l/25th our shutter is open four times as long and is 
therefore letting through four times as much light. This same relation can be found for the lens 
stops (F numbers) as well. The standard F numbers are as follows: F:2.8, F:4, F:5.6, F:8, F:ll, F: 16 
F 22 F 32 As these numbers range from small to large (large to small aperture size in inches) 
each successive stop lets through half as much light as the one preceding it. That is, F:5.6 lets 
through one-half as much light as F:4, F:8, one-half as much as F:5.6; F:ll one-half as much as 
F.8, etc. To recite this in reverse, F: 11 lets through twice as much light as F: 16, F:8 twice as much 
as F: 11; F:5.6 twice as much as F:8, etc. 

Some cameras have F numbers in between those given above. In the table given below we 
list the relative exposure in the row above the line. The row below the line shows the standard F 
numbers, each of which pass half as much light as the number preceding it as we read from left 
to right, and on the bottom row the odd F numbers in their proper position 

Relative 

Exposure , , 

Given 128 64 32 16 8 4 _2_1 

P ~ 2 8 4 5 6 8 11 16 22 32 

Values 3.1 4 5 6 3 9 12.6 18 25 


GROUP 

1 


GROUP 

2 


GROU 

3 


GR01 

4 


( 12 1 


At right Nos 3. 6 and 9 by Cwu 
Galloway. All others Black Stc 































From this table you can see that F/2.8 gives 128 times as much exposure as F:32, etc. The 
figures given in the lower line can be considered to maintain the same relation to each other. 
That is, F:3.1 allows twice as much exposure as F:4.5, or F:9 allows half as much exposure as 
F:6.3, etc. They can also be considered as falling in between the standard F numbers given on 
the row above. Thus if we change from F:5.6 to F:6.3 we reduce our exposure by one quarter 
instead of one half. If we change from Fill to F:9 we increase our exposure by one quarter. 

With these relations clearly in mind it becomes evident that it is possible to give the same 
exposure with a whole series of combinations of shutter speed and stop. For example, all of 
the combinations listed below give exactly the same exposure. 

F:5.6 and 1/200 second 
F:8 “ 1/100 

F: 11 " 1/50 

F: 16 “ 1/25 

F:32 " 1/12 

The relation of stop to exposure time is illustrated diagramatically below The relative sizes 
of stops F:4, F:8 and F 16 are shown. The bar just below the F number illustrates the relative 
exposure times required assuming that 1/100 second would be right for F:4. 

With this wide range of choice at our command how should we proceed to make our selec¬ 
tion? Our recommendation is this: Observe your subject carefully and decide what shutter speed 
is necessary to stop any movement that may be present. Set your shutter at that speed and then 
use the smallest stop (largest F number) that will give sufficient exposure. Remember in applying 
this rule that movement of the camera must also be considered. Never take pictures at a slower 
speed than 1 /25th second with the camera held in the hand. 

The lens apertures on some cameras are marked with numbers preceded by the letters 


Outdoor Exposure Tallin 


For one hour alter sunrise and one 
hour before sunset with Eastman 
Verichrome or Panatomic. or with 
Agfa Plenachrome or Fine Grain 
Plenachrome films 

For All Focusing 
Cameras 

For Fixed Focus 
Folding Cameras 

For 

Box Cameras 
with 

Three Stops 

For 

Box Cameras 

with 

Two Stops 

Shutter 

Speed 

Stop 
Open¬ 
ings 
marked 
in U. S 
System 

Stop 
Open¬ 
ings 
Marked 
in I. 
System 

Shutter 

Speed 

Stop 

3 

GROUP 1 — Marine and Beach 
Scenes — Distant Landscapes— 
Snow without Prominent Dark 
Objects in Foreground 

1/25 

U. S 

32 

U.) 

22 

1/25 

Snapshot with 
Smallest Stop 

Snapshot with 
Small Stop 

GROUP 2—Ordinary Landscapes 








with Sky, with Principal Object 






Snapshot with 

Snapshot with 

in the Foreground 

1/25 

16 

16 

1/25 

2 

Middle Stop 

Large Stop 

GROUP 3—Nearby Landscapes 








Showing Little or No Sky — 






Snapshot with 

Snapshot with 

Groups, Street Scenes 

1/25 

8 

11 

1/25 

1 

Largest Stop 

Large Stop 

GROUP 4—Portraits in the Open 








Shade (not under trees or the 



7.7 





roof of a porch) — Shaded Nearby 



7.9 



1 second with 

1 second with 

Scenes 

1/25 

4 

or 8 

1 sec. 

3 

Smallest Stop 

Small Stop 


The table above is lor exposures when the sun is shining When the day is cloudy the exposures should be about twice as 
long, and when very dull, about four times as long. Steady the camera against the body and hold the breath for the instant, 
when making snapshots Rest the camera on a solid support for time exposures 

If Eastman Super Sensitive Panchromatic, or Agfa Superpan is used reduce the exposures given above by one-half slop 
For example, if the recommended exposure is 1/25 second at F:8, set the lens aperture half way between F:8 and F: 11 
‘Acknowledgment is made of the fact that the above table is patterned after that published by the Eastman Kodak Co , 
in the book, “How to Make Good Pictures " 























"U. S.These mean Uniform System. This system of lens marking is seldom used today. There 
is no need of going into details about this system since it is rapidly going out of use. It is best 
for those with cameras marked in this system to simply translate the U S. numbers into F num¬ 
bers and proceed exactly as if their lens were marked in F numbers. To that end we list the 
F number equivalents of the U. S. numbers below 

F Numbers 4 5.6 8 11 16 22 32 

U S. Numbers 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 

What Film To Use 

Perhaps the most important thing for the beginning photographer to understand about film 
is this. Choose one film of each type that is necessary to the work you are doing and stick to it. 
One has to get used to using a film in somewhat the same fashion as one gets used to a new 
pair of shoes—by using them. 

For the greatest part of general outdoor work the so-called "Chrome" type of orthochromatic 
film is by far the best for amateur use. The reason for this is that this type of film has great 
latitude, which means that the film is capable of reconciling greater inaccuracies of exposure 
than other kinds of film. Therefore, those who choose to follow the advice of this booklet will 
use either Eastman Verichrome or Agfa Plenachrome film except for certain kinds of picture¬ 
making, which will be noted below. 

There are two main types of film in general use today, known as Orthochromatic and Pan¬ 
chromatic. These names refer to the color sensitivity of the films. Panchromatic films are sensitive 
to all the colors of light in the visible spectrum; Orthochromatic films to all colors except orange 
and red. This means that Orthochromatic films will photograph orange and red as very dark 
tones because these colors make little or no impression on the film. 

For that reason it is necessary to use Panchromatic films when photographing subjects 
in which red is an important color. This would be the case in flower photography or in making 
a portrait of a person with prominent freckles. The freckles, being red, would photograph 
very dark in tone if an orthochromatic film were used. 

This booklet does not cover the subject of making pictures indoors under artificial light, 
but it should be noted in passing that Panchromatic films should be used for that purpose. 

Those who have miniature cameras with picture sizes of 2 Vi x 2 Vi" or smaller should use 
films specially made for small cameras. These films are called fine grain films because they 
are manufactured so that it is possible to make large prints from the small negatives without 
the grain structure of the negative showing in the print. Furthermore, all users of miniature 
cameras should specify Fine Grain Development'' when they take their films to the finisher. 

Recommended Panchromatic films are Eastman Super Sensitive Panchromatic, and Agfa 
Superpan. Recommended fine grain films are Agfa Fine Grain Plenachrome or Eastman 
Panatomic. 

When To Use Filters 

It is our belief that the beginning photographer only becomes confused if he attempts to 
absorb too much photographic theory at first. For that reason we have simply recommended 
the films which we think are best for amateur use, without giving much in the way of reasons 
for the choice and without attempting to describe or explain the characteristics of the various 
kinds of films which are available. We ask the reader to accept these recommendations on faith, 
setting aside his curiosity regarding the why and wherefore until he has obtained the photo¬ 
graphic experience that will make for a better understanding. We propose to treat the subject 
of filters in the same way, by simply stating dogmatically what to use and when to use it and 
letting the explanation wait. 

A filter is a piece of colored glass, or colored gelatin between glass, that is placed in front 
of the lens. The filter is used to control the relative amount of exposure which the film will receive 
from light of various colors. For example, suppose we are photographing a sky with white 
clouds. Our films are almost equally sensitive to blue and white so the blue sky will have just 
as much exposure effect on the film as the white clouds. When this happens the blue sky and 
the white clouds will have the same tone in the final print, with the result that the clouds will 
not show up in the picture If we place a yellow filter over the lens this will stop some of the 
blue light from the sky, but will let all of the white light from the clouds pass through Then our 

f IS] 



Action in Waikiki Surf 


Pan American Press 


film will receive more exposure for the white clouds than it gets for the blue sky. Consequently, 
when the print is made the clouds will appear lighter than the blue sky and will show clearly 
in the picture. 

Go to your dealer and ask for a K-2 filter or its equivalent. K-2 is the Eastman designation 
for the yellow filter of the density we recommend. Other manufacturers have other names for 
the same thing. Be sure that the filter has a "factor'' of 4 for Verichrome or Plenachrome film. As 
we have seen above, the filter stops some of the light which would otherwise reach our film. We 
must therefore allow additional exposure to make up for the light which is stopped. The number 
of times we must multiply the exposure we would give without the filter, in order to arrive at the 
exposure that must be given with the filter, is known as the filter factor. Remember, then, that 
whenever this filter is used with Verichrome or Plenachrome film you must give 4 times as much 
exposure as you would give without the filter. When using the filter with the two panchromatic 
films recommended give 2 times the exposure. With Eastman Panatomic give 2 times the ex¬ 
posure. With Agfa Fine Grain Plenachrome give 4 times the exposure. Use the filter on all land¬ 
scape pictures, especially when the sky is included and for all pictures made around beaches 
or lakes. Forget about it the rest of the time. 


Orthochromatic Film Orthochromatic Film 

No Filter with K-2 Filter 


Panchromatic Film 
No Filter 


Panchromatic Film 
with K-2 Filter 









Wolff-Black Star 


It is not always necessary to include the whole of a figure in a picture. Close-ups such as this 
give the observer the impression that he is getting a more intimate view of the proceedings. 


07] 





How To Hecoguize 
Your Failures 

The amateur photographer who wants to improve his pic 
tures can help himself a great deal by studying every picture 
he makes carefully and critically, and deciding how that pic¬ 
ture might be improved. At the very least he should make sure 
that he fully understands the cause of every failure. If you 
know why things went wrong you are not likely to repeat that 
mistake in the future. To that end we present on this page 
examples of 'common mistakes. No. 1 shows the result of 
under-exposure. Notice how dull and lifeless the picture is, 
and observe that no detail is visible in any of the dark por¬ 
tions of the picture. No. 2 shows a print from an over-exposed 
negative. In this case detail shows very well in the dark parts 
of the picture but is missing in the light portions. It is easier to 
recognize incorrect exposure by looking at the film rather than 
the print. An under-exposed film will have very few dark parts 
and those parts which correspond to dark parts in the print 
will be almost wholly transparent. An over-exposed film will 
be very dark all over and will have to be held against a strong 
light to see through it. 

Subject movement shown in No. 3 can be distinguished 
from camera movement shown in No. 4, for when the camera 
is moved every part of the picture will be blurred. When the 
subject moves, only the part that moves will be blurred. Notice 
that only the head is blurred in No. 3, the shoulders being 
perfectly clear. 

No. 5 shows the result of tipping the camera horizontally 
When the camera is tipped vertically, that is, pointed upward 
or downward, the result is not so noticeable unless there are 
long vertical lines in the picture. No. 6. If there are, the ver¬ 
tical lines will incline toward each other. Consequently, if you 
are taking a picture of a tall building and want the vertical 
lines to remain parallel as they are in reality, you must not 
tip the camera upward in order to get the whole of the build¬ 
ing in the picture. Move back to a greater distance so that all 
of the building will be included without tipping the camera 

If the finger or other object is accidentally placed in front 
of the lens the result will be like that in No. 7. No. 8 shows how 
such a mistake is often made. 

If you obtain a series of pictures that are slightly out-of¬ 
focus as are Nos. 9 and 10, it probably means that your judg¬ 
ment of distance is faulty. Examine your prints carefully to 
see whether you are consistently focusing too close or too far 
away. If there is a plane in back of your subject which is sharp, 
as is the foliage in No. 9, you are over-estimating distances 
If some point in front of your subject is sharp as is the concrete 
step in No. 10, you have set your camera for too short a focus. 

If you forget to wind the film forward between exposures a 
double exposure will result. This mistake is easy to recognize 
since there are then two pictures on the same film, one on top 
of the other, as in No. 11. 

If your pictures are dull and slightly fuzzy it is probably 
due to a dirty lens. Blow the breath gently on the lens and 
then wipe gently with a clean linen handkerchief, or a piece 
of lens tissue, which can be obtained from any store or optical 
house. Do not use solvents of any kind to clean a lens, for if 
any of the solvent gets in between the lens elements it may 
do serious damage. 

t 18 ] 









Pictures of People 

Lighting 

The angle from which sunlight falls on 
the faces of our subjects is extremely im¬ 
portant in determining whether or not we 
will get a pleasing likeness. The pictures on 
this page are all of the same girl and yet it 
is easy to see that Figures 2, 4 and 5 present 
the young lady to much better advantage 
than does Fig. 1 for example. If light falls on 
a rounded surface such as a face from di¬ 
rectly in front, all parts of the object receive 
equal illumination and are equally bright 
to the photographic film. A face photo¬ 
graphed under such a light looks flat and 
uninteresting because there is no variation 
of light and shade to reveal the roundness 
and structure of the surfaces. Fig. 1 shows 
the results obtained under such a light and 
the diagram shows the relative positions of 
sun, subject and camera. Notice also that 
the subject cannot avoid squinting, for the 
light is shining directly in the eyes. To avoid 
squinting and to get a good likeness by 
having a pleasing gradation of light and 
shade on the face, we can turn our subjects 
away from the sun so that the light is com¬ 
ing from one side or from slightly behind 
the subject. With such an arrangement, we 
obtain an effect like that in Fig. 2. By turn¬ 
ing the subject a little more (we must move 
our camera as well, of course) we get the 
effect shown in Fig. 5, which is called back¬ 
lighting. 

By being careful to turn the head exactly 
enough so that the light strikes just at the 
profile of the face we obtain the very pleas¬ 
ing line of light, outlining the profile. Noth¬ 
ing very difficult about that, is there? lust 
follow the diagrams and observe the two 
precautions which follow. 1. Be careful to 
prevent direct light from the sun striking 
the lens, by shading it with your free hand. 
2. When using back or side light give from 
two to three times as much exposure as 
would be given for the same set-up with 
light from the front. Fig. 3 shows what hap¬ 
pens if extra exposure is not given. Pleas¬ 
ant and very delicate effects can be ob¬ 
tained by placing the subject in the shade 
of a rock, tree, or building (Fig. 4). In this 
cose give four times as much exposure as 
would be allowed for the same subject in 
bright sunlight. 

Back and side lightings such as are 
shown in Figures 2 and 5 cannot be ob 
tained in the middle of the day, for the sun 
is then too hiqh in the sky 


[ 19 1 



FIG. I. Q sUN 


SUN HEAD 



FIG. 3. 



FIG. 4. 



(X SUN 










Pictures of 

Backgrounds 


■ B ■ 



No doubt backgrounds will seem to be a very unim¬ 
portant part of picture making to many a reader of this 
book. At first thought, they do appear to be a minor de¬ 
tail. The truth, however, is that more -amateur informal 
portraits are spoiled by faulty backgrounds than by any 
other single mistake which might be made. The writer 
has acted as a judge at several snapshot contests and in 
each case was impressed with the fact that the great ma¬ 
jority of the portraits submitted suffered because of bad 
backgrounds. 

In using the word portrait we mean any picture in 
which a human being is the principal object, not just 
close up views of the head. The amateur photographer 
is likely to overlook a bad background because he does not yet 
realize that the eye sees things quite differently than the camera 
lens. What the eye sees is largely controlled by the brain behind it. 
In other words, the eye sees only that upon which the attention of 
the mind is fixed. If you hold your finger a foot in front of your face 
and look intently at it, you are totally unaware of the doorway 
across the room. By making a mental effort, while still looking at the 
finger, you can become conscious of the doorway, but under ordi¬ 
nary circumstances the brain completely ignores things at all re¬ 
moved from that which occupies its attention. The lens, however, 
has no brain behind it, so it sees and records everything for many 
feet beyond the object on which it is focused. It is up to the photo¬ 
grapher, therefore, to act as the brain behind the lens—that is his 
function. Unless he removes his attention from the object he is pho¬ 
tographing and carefully looks for unwanted spots or lines in his 
background, he is likely to realize their presence for the first time 
when he looks at his print. 

Observe the three lower pictures to the left. The top one of the 
three has two glaring background faults. One branch of the tree 
in the background appears to be growing out of the young man's 
head, and the horizon line is seen to be gently resting upon that 
same head. The lower picture shows a background that, while not 
ideal, might still get by if the three ladies and a baby carriage had 
not stationed themselves there to watch the proceedings. Unrelated 
figures such as these are always most distracting. The center pic¬ 
ture shows a background somewhat better than the other two but 
it is still spotty. It takes our attention away from the figure and that 
should never be allowed. 

So look very carefully at your backgrounds. Select one that will 
photograph as a fairly even tone without spots or lines, and keep a 
weather eye peeled for onlookers who stroll casually into the 
picture. 

The sky makes a splendid background, as is shown by the pic¬ 
ture at the top of this page. A smooth hill, a uniform expanse of 
foliage, a large even-toned rock, the side of a building, all offer 
opportunities for simple backgrounds. Do not place your subject 
too close to the background. Keep it five or six feet away at least, 
and use a large stop (small F number) in order to keep the depth of 
focus as shallow as possible. That will help to smooth out the back¬ 
ground by throwing it somewhat out of focus. 

[20] . 









• ■ ■ 


People 

Posing and Expression 

Posing and Expression are treated together in this discus¬ 
sion because the two are so closely related. In a very real 
sense obtaining a successful expression on a subject's face 
depends upon the skill of the photographer in posing his sub¬ 
ject in a natural manner, and with a minimum of fuss, so that 
he or she feels at ease before the camera. He who makes a 
great to-do over the taking of a picture is simply defeating his own ends 

Before you even broach the subject of making a picture select the 
background carefully so that you will not have to pick up and move to 
a new location because of some defect which shows up just as the picture 
is about to be snapped. 

Before placing your subject have clearly in mind just the sort of pose 
you want to get. Consider the direction of the lighting and plan the pose 
and select the background so that the lighting will be readily obtained 

Have your camera in approximate focus, know about where you in¬ 
tend to place it, and decide on the exposure. Then call to your subject 
and say "Please stand in here about like this, and look off in that direc¬ 
tion." If you have done a little practicing so as to be thoroughly familiar 
with your camera the picture will be taken before your subject has had 
a chance to become self-conscious. Strive always to suggest a pose that 
the individual would naturally assume in the surroundings in which he 
or she is placed. Often it is best to simply indicate the place you wish the 
subject to stand or sit, and let them fall into the pose which is natural to 
them. Almost any pose which is really natural will be graceful and 
pleasing. 

It often helps to achieve a natural pose if the photographer gives his 
subject something to do, even if it only be some object to hold in the 
hands and look at. If this is done be careful to see that the action taking 
place will not be concealed from the camera. That, of course, would 
make the picture quite aggravating to look at for the observer would not 
be able to tell what was going on. The picture in the lower right is a 
rather extreme example of concealed action. Examples of what is meant 
by camera consciousness may be found in the second picture from the 
top at the right and in the two lower pictures on the facing page. In the 
first example, camera consciousness is suggested by the expression. In 
the other two, the pose is most responsible for causing that impression 

Regardless of whether or not your camera has focusing adjustments 
which permit it, do not move too close to your subject even though you 
plan your finished picture as a large head such as is shown in the third 
picture from the top at the right. If the camera is used too close, distor¬ 
tion of the features results. In the picture just mentioned, the nose is shown 
too large in proportion to the rest of the face. Notice also that if the cam¬ 
era is used very close the depth of focus is very slight so that definition 
falls off much too rapidly. The ears in this picture are quite fuzzy for that 
reason. How close it is safe to use the camera depends on a number of 
factors so we can only lay down an approximate rule to follow. Providing 
the focusing adjustments of your camera permit it, you can go close 
enough to a portrait subject to fill your picture space with head and 
shoulders only, if the focal length of your lens is equal to, or greater than, 
the sum of one short side and one long side of the film. If the focal length 
is less than the sum of the two adjacent sides, stay far enough back so 
that about two-thirds of the standing figure is included After the film is 
processed you can have an enlarged print made from just the portion of 
the film you want to show in the picture as is explained under the head 
inq. Makinq the Most of Your Pictures 


{ 2 ! 1 





The Portrait Attachment 





The portrait attachment is what is known as a supplementary- 
lens. It is slipped over the front of your camera lens and makes it 
possible to then use the camera closer to the subject than is other¬ 
wise permissible. It is used for making portraits or for taking pic¬ 
tures of small objects, in order to get a large size image on the film. 

The results obtained by using the portrait attachment are clearly 
shown by the three pictures at the left. The top picture was taken 
at a distance of ten feet with an ordinary box camera. Notice the 
size of the image. The box camera was then moved to a position 
3V2 feet from the subject and the center picture was made without 
the portrait attachment. Notice that the center picture is out of focus. 

The portrait attachment was then put in place over the lens and 
the lower picture was made. Notice that this third picture is per¬ 
fectly sharp. We can see, therefore, that the portrait attachment 
permits us to obtain larger images on our film because with the 
attachment in place we can move our camera closer to the subject. 

Box cameras must be placed exactly 3V2 feet from the subject 
when the portrait attachment is used. With focusing cameras the 
distance varies depending upon the distance at which the focusing 
scale of the camera is set. A table giving the proper distances ac¬ 
companies each attachment. 

No additional exposure need be given because of the fact that 
the camera is used closer to the subject. Give the same exposure 
as would be given if the camera were placed at the distance for 
which it is set on the focusing scale. With box cameras give the 
same exposure as would be given with the camera placed at ten 
feet. 

When using the portrait attachment great care must be taken to 
place the camera at exactly the distance stated in the table. Do 
not guess at the distance but measure it with a yardstick or tape 
measure. For portraits measure the distance from the eyes of the 
subject to the lens of the camera. 

The view finder on your camera will not center the picture prop¬ 
erly on the film when the portrait attachment is used, since it is con¬ 
structed for use only with the regular camera lens. You must center 
your picture by sighting along the top of the camera. By sighting 
along one top edge and then the other, you can tell if the camera 
is centered with respect to left and right. If the camera is placed 
level and at the same height as the eyes, that will center the picture 
vertically 



[22] 




By Ewing Galloway, N.Y. 


The back-lighting in this case helps to minimize the interest in the face of the child and 
to concentrate attention on the amusing gestures. Lighting can often 
be used to direct the attention where it is most desired. 


[ 23 ] 







Groups 

For the most part the problems of group photography are similar to 
those described for portraiture, only in this case you are striving to 
make portraits of several people at once. It is just as important to care¬ 
fully select a simple background, to plan the arrangement of the group 
ahead, to make sure that your light will be coming from a satisfactory 
angle, and to have your camera ready, with groups as it is with indi¬ 
viduals. If anything it is more so since groups are, in the nature of 
things, more difficult to handle. In general it is advisable to plan to 
use an ordinary 45° front lighting. That is the sort of lighting which 
was used for the illustrations on this page. With such a lighting the 
light is coming over the photographer's shoulder (that is, from behind 
the camera) at an angle of about 45°. It is possible to use side and 
back lightings as described under Portrait Lighting with a group of 
two or three. However, it is difficult to use such lightings with large 
groups because the figures behind are likely to cut off the light from 
the figures in front. 

The arrangement of the group is of first importance. Try to work 
out an arrangement that does not look too mechanical but will at the 
same time not look too confused. By confused we mean avoid having 
the heads placed indiscriminately here and there in the picture so that 
they have no relation to each other. That is what usually results when 
the photographer snaps an unposed picture of a group. There may be 
two or three in a close bunch in one part of the picture space, a rather 
lonely looking fellow off by himself in another part and perhaps a third 
sub-group spotted in somewhere else. Such a picture instantly dis¬ 
closes the fact that it has been carelessly made. 

No. 1 illustrates an arrangement that is too mechanical. The heads 
are almost all in a straight line, the only variation arising from the 
different heights of the individuals. 

A much better grouping is shown in No. 2. Notice how much the 
picture is improved by simply moving' the two girls slightly forward 
and the two men on the outsides toward the center. Such a group has 
the further advantage of being more compact, so the camera does not ^ 

need to be so far away to include all of the group. 

Nos. 1 and 2, however, do reveal the fact, rather noticeably, that a 
picture is being taken. That is not necessarily a disadvantage for this is 
the sort of arrangement that shows each face most fully. If, however, 
you would prefer a more natural-appearing picture, with less camera 
consciousness, try giving your group something to do. Number 3 illus¬ 
trates how this can be done. Simply give them something besides the 
camera to look at. 

It is generally best to avoid having part of a group in the shade 
and part in a strong light. There is always the temptation to under¬ 
expose in such cases for the inexperienced photographer is likely to 
forget about the fellow in the shade. Even with full exposure the face 
in the shade is bound to print much darker than those in the bright 
light, and consequently it will not show up as clearly as the others. No. 4 
shows what happens. Notice that the man furthest to the left in the pic¬ 
ture is pretty well lost in the shade. No. 4 is by no means an extreme 
example, for it is evident that this picture was made under conditions 
where quite a lot of light was getting into the shaded portion of the 
scene, and it has been properly exposed. In places with deep shade 
and bright spots of sunlight striking through, the contrast would be 
very much greater. Such conditions should be avoided entirely-. If one 
is careful to expose for the shaded figure a picture such as the one 
shown can have a most attractive quality. 

No. 5 shows the result of moving the group out into the sunlight. 

I 24 ] 






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[ 25 ] 











By Ewing Galloway, N Y 

By pointing his camera upward the photographer emphasizes the idea that these hikers 
are negotiating a steep and difficult climb. 


[ 26 ] 




Bv Ewinq Galloway N Y 


This is an example of what is meant by catching an action subject at the peak of the 
movement. You can get sharper pictures by tripping your shutter at the instant when 
upward movement has stopped and downward movement not yet begun. 


[ 27 ] 











Action 


At first glance action pictures may seem beyond the scope of 
those whose cameras do not have fast shutter speeds. However, it is 
very important to be able to judge what shutter speed will stop any 
particular movement, for unless that is known the photographer has 
no means of judging whether his shutter is fast enough for the making 
of a certain picture or not. So let us first consider the factors that deter¬ 
mine what shutter speed is required. These are three in number. 

1. Speed at which subject is moving. 

2. Direction of the movement. 

3. Distance of subject from camera. 

It is quite obvious that the faster the subject is moving the shorter 
will be the exposure required to stop that motion on the film, but the 
other two factors mentioned will require a little elucidation. 

The influence of the direction of movement is illustrated in Nos. 1, 
2, and 3 at the left. Each of these was exposed at 1/100 second at a 
distance of 25 feet. In No. 1 the direction of movement is directly to¬ 
ward the camera and it is plain that the movement has been practi¬ 
cally stopped in spite of the fact that the boy is running at full speed. 
In No. 2 the movement is on a diagonal to the camera. The shutter 
speed was not fast enough to stop this movement as can be plainly 
seen by the fuzziness of the picture. In No. 3, with movement at right 
angles to the camera, the fuzziness is even more pronounced. We can 
see then that movements at right angles to the camera require the 
fastest shutter speeds to stop motion. That much slower shutter speeds 
can be used if the movement is toward or away from the camera. That 
movements on a diagonal to the camera require intermediate shutter 
speeds. 

We have seen that 1/100 second was sufficient to stop the runner 
moving directly toward the camera, but insufficient to stop the same 
movement at a diagonal or at right angles. What shutter speeds would 
be necessary to stop such movements? A whole series of photo¬ 
graphs were made of this subject. Exposures ranging from 1/100 
second to 1/1000 second were made for each direction of movement. 
These were then laid out in three rows with all the toward-the-camera 
movements in one row and with the slowest exposure on the left and 
the fastest exposure on the right and with the same arrangement for 
the other two movements. 

It was then a simple matter to inspect these prints and pick out 
the slowest shutter speed that would stop the diagonal movement and 
the slowest shutter speed that would stop the right angle movement. 
These two are shown in Nos. 4 and 5. It was found that 1 /500 second 
was required to stop the diagonal movement and 1/1000 second for 
the right angle movement. If we were photographing an object mov¬ 
ing at only half the speed of a rapidly running boy we could then 
use shutter speeds one-half as fast as those which were required for 
the present test, and if our subject were moving at twice the speed 
of the present example we would need to expose at twice the speeds 
which were found correct in the present test. 

This test therefore shows what speeds are required for the three 
types of movement photographed at 25 feet. The test is made with a 

128 ] 


Pictures 


subject which moves at a speed with which all are familiar so it 
serves as a good basis for judging what speeds would be required for 
other subjects. As we have already stated, the distance of the subject 
from the camera also affects the shutter speed required to stop mo¬ 
tion. The reason for this is not hard to see. What actually causes a 
blurred image such as we see in No. 3 is movement of the image over 
the face of the film during the space of time in which the shutter is 
open. The result of such movement is that the film receives a series of 
images, each one a little different than the other. 

Consequently the slower the image is moving across the face of 
the film the slower the shutter speed required to stop motion. We know 
that the film receives a smaller image of a subject at a considerable 
distance from the camera than it does if the subject is near by. It is 
also self-evident that the smaller the image is on the film, the farther 
the actual subject will have to move to cause any noticeable amount 
of movement of the image across the face of the film. For that reason 
we can use slower shutter speeds when our action subjects are farther 
away. Give half the shutter speeds required for the test when your 
subject is 50 feet away and one-fourth those speeds if the subject is 
100 feet away. Action subjects should rarely be taken at less than 25 
feet distant from the camera. But if that should be necessary a shutter 
speed twice as fast as those for the test would be required if the sub¬ 
ject was as close as 15 feet. 

It is always desirable to use as slow a shutter speed as is safe, 
since that permits us to use a smaller stop and get greater depth of 
focus. If the light is not at its brightest we will need to use the slowest 
possible shutter speed in order to get enough exposure. 

There is one trick that often makes it possible to take action pic¬ 
tures in bad light or with shutters that are not really intended for 
speed work. We do not mean this to imply, however, that action pic¬ 
tures should be attempted with box cameras or with any camera 
with shutter speeds slower than 1/100 second. To make such an 
attempt is only inviting disappointment. To get back to our point, a 
great many kinds of action reach a peak where the movement is 
almost stopped for an instant. If the photographer can shoot just at 
that instant he can get away with using a shutter speed about half 
as fast as would otherwise be required. Nos. 1 and 2 illustrate this 
point. Both were exposed at 1/100 second. No. 1 is sharp because 
it is caught just at the peak of the movement. Notice that the chains 
of the swing are slack. No. 2 is not sharp because it was shot with 
the swing in full motion. Diving, high jumping, pole vaulting and 
other forms of action may also be treated in this way. 

Most action that is photographed passes a definite point, on which 
the photographer can focus in advance. When that is not the case, 
focus at a distance that you think will be right. Keeping that distance 
in mind you can swing your camera in an arc with your body as a 
pivot, and shoot at any time that your subject appears to be at the 
proper distance. (See No. 3.) An eye level view-finder as is illustrated 
in No. 4 is most convenient for action work. 

Remember that you must trip the shutter an instant before you 
see the particular phase of the action that you wish to catch 




7 



[29 1 






Scenic Views 


The problems involved in making scenic views, or landscapes, if you prefer the more 
artistic designation, might be summed up by saying: "find a good landscape." That makes 
things sound delightfully simple, for there really are oodles of lovely landscapes to be found, 
if we have learned to recognize them when we see them. There lies the catch. We must learn 
to see them as the camera will record them, not as they look to the eye. On this page we wish 
to discuss three factors which often combine to waste the photographer's film, by luring him 
into taking a picture that isn't quite there—photographically speaking. 

The first of these is color. A landscape that is a perfect riot of color, and exceedingly beau¬ 
tiful for that reason, will not always make a good photograph. Unless there is also a pleasing 
arrangement of forms, of lines and masses, with a good strong center of interest, the color will 
not help much for it will not be present in our print. One of the most helpful faculties which the 
photographer can develop is the ability to see his subjects in monochrome. That is, see them 
as they will ultimately appear in the black and white photograph. Those who would like to 
learn to do this should get themselves a small piece of blue glass (glass manufacturers call it 
Cobalt blue sheet glass) and look at their subjects with this glass held in front of the eye. They 
will then see their subjects in monochrome. Incidentally, the blue viewing-glass is also a great 
help in portraiture. It shows you just how the lighting on the face will appear in the finished 
picture. 

The second misleading factor is that of size. We are often much impressed with the rugged 
massiveness of a towering mountain peak, but unless such a subject is properly photo¬ 
graphed it may look like a pimple in our print. To maintain the impression of great size and 
height, frame the picture in the finder so that the top of the mountain comes near to the top 
of the picture. Then try to include some object of known size, such as a small cabin, a few 
cattle, or one or two human beings. Be careful that none of these are near to the camera, for 
they may then become more interesting to look at than the mountain. If you use people, take 
care that they are looking toward the mountain, not toward the camera. And don't hesitate 
to trim such a picture drastically, as is recommended under the heading, Making the Most of 
Your Pictures. 


The third factor is distance. As you stand at some great height, on top of a mountain or at 
the edge of a great cliff, the view which spreads out before you is wonderfully impressive. 
But remember that you are looking at this view in its full size, miles upon miles of it in each 
direction. Ask yourself, how much of this is going to show when it is reduced to a picture a few 
square inches in size. In the tremendous reduction which must take place much of the impres¬ 
sive quality of the view is lost, 
and the photographer is disap¬ 
pointed. 



This is not written to say that 
you should never take distant 
views. Take them if you wish, of 
course, but take them with the 
understanding that they can sel¬ 
dom retain the beauty of the 
original. Then look about you 
and pick a small portion of the 
landscape and use that to make 
the photographs that you hope 
will turn out to be pleasing pic¬ 
tures. 

If you wish the camera to 
reach out and record as much 
distance as possible, use the 
yellow filter previously recom¬ 
mended. Occasionally one pre¬ 
fers to let the distance melt away 
into a mysterious haze. In that 
case make the picture without 
the filter • 


[ 30 } 






P. Douglas Anderson, F.R.P.S. 

[31 ] 


Much of the charm of this picture is due to the fact that it was made with back-lighting 
on a slightly hazy day. Keep an eye open for opportunities to 
capture this lovely atmospheric quality. 





Composition 

To Make Pictures Interesting 





We make no attempt to discuss composi¬ 
tion in the way that subject is usually treated. 
Long-winded, abstract explanations are 
bound to be confusing to the beginner in any 
field, for he hasn't the experience that must 
serve as a basis for understanding. Instead 
we present a few definite things that should 
be done, a few definite things that should not 
be done. If these points are understood and 
followed, we are willing to bet that the great 
majority of your compositions will be quite 
satisfactory. 

The most common mistake which begin¬ 
ners make is to include too much in their pic¬ 
tures. No. 1 is a typical example. Notice that 
there are really two pictures here, one com¬ 
peting with the other. The man and the swan 
constitute one picture, the roadway another. 
We cannot have both, for the roadway leads 
the eye away from the principal objects. No¬ 
tice how much more satisfactory No. 2 is. Here 
we can really see the action, because it is 
revealed in larger size and the distraction of 
the road leading the eye away has been re¬ 
moved. Both these pictures are from the same 
film. See the section on Making the Most of 
Your Pictures for further discussion of these 
same two prints. Every picture, regardless of 
its subject matter, must have a center of interest. The center of interest must be the dominant 
object in the picture. If it isn't it just can't be a center of interest, for that's what the term means— 
the dominant object. 


Usually the center of interest is a single object, such as the portals in No. 4 or the barn in 
No. 6, but occasionally it may be made up of more than one object, as is the case in No. 2, 
provided they are tied together in some manner. In No. 2 the two objects are tied together by 
the gesture which the man is making toward the swan. If he was not making that gesture and was 
not looking toward the swan, the picture would be absolutely spoiled, because it would then 
have two objects competing for the center of interest. 

The gentleman who likes to ask embarrassing questions ’will at this point say: "Where is the 
center of interest in group pictures?" Turn to the group pictures on page 24. No. 1 certainly has 
no center of interest, which simply adds one more reason, for our presenting it as a horrible 
example. But in No. 2 there is the suggestion of a center of interest. The two girls are given the 
break in this case and presented with slightly more emphasis than is accorded the men. But 
look at No. 3. No trouble locating the center of interest there. It is the camera, of course, the point 
to which all attention is directed. 

The main lines in a picture should lead to the center of interest. Observe No. 6. The line of 
the gully running diagonally downward from the upper right, the line of the fence, and the sug¬ 
gestion of line formed by the succession of trees in the lower left, all lead the eye to the barn. 
The only line in the picture which does not lead to the barn is the horizon line. Incidentally, you 
may be interested to know that when the famous photographer who made this picture makes 
a print for exhibition purposes he trims it down from the top until the horizon line is eliminated. 
In that form it has been hung in most of the leading exhibitions of the world. Avoid having the 
light come from directly behind the camera when making landscape pictures. In fact, such a 
light almost always presents the most uninteresting aspect of any subject, because there are 
then no shadows to give variety to the picture. Notice how flat and uninteresting is No. 5, 
compared to No. 6. 

[ 32 ] 








A landscape picture is often made 
more interesting by including a figure, 
or some grazing cattle, appropriately 
placed. Too much emphasis cannot be 
put on the term appropriately placed, 
for a poorly placed figure will ruin the 
best landscape. Ask yourself just before 
shooting, "what kind of a picture am I 
making?" Is it a landscape or a portrait? 

It can never be both. Is No. 1 a land¬ 
scape or a portrait? Quite obviously it is 
a little of each. The figure looking toward 
the camera suggests a portrait, but the 
importance of the background suggests 
a landscape. Consequently it is neither 
fish, flesh, nor fowl, and is thoroughly 
unsatisfactory. If you are making a land¬ 
scape never pose a figure so that it is 
looking at the camera. Always have the 
figure look into the picture, as is being 
done in No. 4. 

The reasons why it is a mistake to 
place a figure close to the side toward 
which it is looking, are given under the 
head of Spacing The Portrait. One look 
at No. 2 will probably convince the 
reader that no reasons are necessary. It 
just looks all wrong. 

The center of the picture is seldom a 
good place for a figure. The eye gets the 
impression that it has to go around the 
figure to get into the picture, and a figure 
so placed is apt to be unduly assertive. 

No. 3 illustrates the point. 

Keep your horizons away from the 
center of the picture. Any too obviously 
equal proportioning is usually to be 
avoided. When the horizon line is exact¬ 
ly in the center as in No. 5, the picture 
appears to be divided into two equal 
halves. That is an uninteresting sort of 
an arrangement. A better position for 
the horizon line is at about two-thirds 
the height of the print. If the principal in¬ 
terest in your picture is a beautiful cloud formation it is perfectly permissible to place the horizon 
about one-third the height of the print from the bottom, thus allowing more of the picture space 
for the sky. 

When taking pictures of winding roads or streams, get as much elevation for the camera 
as possible. If the camera position is too low the road broadens out too much in the fore¬ 
ground. Notice how disturbing this is in No. 7. and how it has been corrected by using a higher 
camera position in No. 8. A low camera position will also place objects in the foreground higher 
up in the picture space. Observe that the fence post farthest from the camera is above the 
mountain ridge in No. 7 but below it in No. 8. Notice also that because of this the mountain 
appears much lower and less impressive in No. 7 than in No. 8. 

There will be times, of course, when you will want to emphasize objects in the foreground. 
In such cases the low camera position is desirable. 

Where should we place the center of interest? Keeping in mind what has been said before, 
look at the little diagram marked No. 9. Notice that it has been divided into thirds in both 
dimensions. In general, try to place the center of interest at one of the four points at which the 
lines inside the rectangle, which represent your picture space, intersect. Go through the pic¬ 
tures in this book looking for centers of interest (skipping those purposely made wrong for 
illustration purposes) and notice that almost invariably the center of interest will be found at 
one of these four points. In portraits consider the eyes as the center of interest. It is in such a 


position in No 4, for example 


[ 33 ] 













Spacing the Portrait 


Have you ever noticed what your eye 
does when you look at a picture with a wind¬ 
ing road running through it? Have you no¬ 
ticed what it does when it sees a picture with 
a person shown looking in a certain direc¬ 
tion? It does the same thing in both cases. It 
follows along the winding road, or it follows 
the direction in which the person is looking. 
Artists say that the eye "moves" through the 
picture as the principal lines direct it to, or 
as the direction of a gaze directs it to. Artists 
also say that such lines (or such imaginary 
lines as are established by the direction of 
a gaze) set up movements in the picture. In 
saying this they mean that the eye is per¬ 
suaded to move through the picture in a cer¬ 
tain path. The thing which the artist must 
guard against is that these movements do 
not carry the eye out of the picture. When 
that happens the picture is bound to be an¬ 
noying to look at. One way in which the 
artist controls the force of the movement in 
his picture is by spacing. By allowing space 
on the side toward which the movement is 
directed he cushions the force of the move¬ 
ment. 

There is no such movement in a portrait 
when the subject is looking directly at the 
camera, but if the eyes are turned to either 
side, there is the suggestion of movement to¬ 
ward the side to which the eyes are turned. 

, To control that movement we must allow more 

space on the side to which the face is turned than we allow behind the head. 

Nos. 3 and 4 illustrate this condition. No. 3 is unpleasant because the eyes look directly 
out of the picture, with the result that our eyes slide out also. By allowing space in front of the 
eyes, as in No. 4, we take care of that condition and the picture appears nicely balanced. 

In portraits, the eyes should usually be placed above the center of the picture. If they are 
below the center, the subject appears crushed down in the picture space. Notice how disturbing 
this is in No. 1, and how much better the same subject is in No. 2. 


Spacing Action Pictures 


The need to balance movement in the picture is even greater in action pictures For then 
the movement is actually pictured, not only suggested. Notice that in No. 5 one gets the un¬ 
pleasant feeling that the boy is about to crash head on into the side of the picture. No such 
suggestion is present in No. 6, which is properly spaced. 


[34 J 



By Lwmg Galloway, N.Y. 

Another Example of Action Caught at the Peak of the Movement 


e 35 3 





By Ewing Galloway, N Y. 


This Scotty's very black coat reflects little light. Therefore it will take twice as much expo¬ 
sure to get a picture of him as would be required for a dog or cat with a light colored coat. 


{ 36 ] 





P. Douglas Anderson, F.R.P.S. 


Here is one way of persuading a dog to hold still for his picture. When you include 
people in your pictures of animals try to get both animal and person looking in the same 
direction. This gives the impression that the attention of both is directed 
to the same thing, and adds unity to the picture. 


[ 37 ] 





All by Ewing Galloway, N Y. 



Animals 

There is perhaps no field in which the camera is better 
fitted to do a superlatively fine job than in the picturing of 
animals. And this is an extremely pleasant field in which to 
work. There is enough variety of subject matter to keep any 
photographer busy for a lifetime. One doesn't have to worry 
his head about camera consciousness in his subject, or won¬ 
der whether or not he is going to be able to get a "natural" 
expression. Whatever expression your animal subject may 
wear, and they are infinite in number, it will surely be natural. 
There is the further satisfaction of knowing that good animal 
pictures are bound to be appreciated. Almost everyone is 
interested in animals of all kinds and consequently takes de¬ 
light in seeing good pictures of them. 

The most accessible animals are, of course, the ordinary 
household pets—dogs and cats. Both make excellent subjects. 
Perhaps the most difficult problem is that of focusing. Our 
subjects are apt to be a bit restless and may fail to appreciate 
the necessity of holding still for the camera. It is therefore wise 
to use a fairly fast shutter speed. 1/100 second or 1 /200 second 
are recommended. Faster speeds are rarely necessary and 
are in fact to be avoided because we also want to use as 
small a stop as possible in order to get maximum depth of 
focus. The more depth of focus we have the less chance there 
is of the subject moving out of the area of sharp focus. 

Get your subject in a good outdoor light. One which 
comes over either of the photographer's shoulders at about 
a 45° angle is best. Don't try to work too close. That will only 
make it more difficult to maintain focus. Be satisfied with a 
smaller image on the film. You can always enlarge the part 
that is wanted later. See section on Making the Most of Your 
Pictures. 

Be sure and select a simple background. This is really a 
portrait that you are making and you don't want your best 
shot spoiled because of some ugly projection in the back¬ 
ground. If your subject simply refuses to stand still, try put¬ 
ting him on a table that has been covered with a blanket 
of even tone. Or if you like you can always try the old dodge 
of putting him, or them as the case may be, in a box or basket 
and making your shot as he tries to climb out. This is always 
a good dodge with puppies or kittens. 

Don’t use too high a camera position. Treat your animal 
subjects as you would if making a portrait of a human being. 
Looking down on them from above results in foreshortening 
of the body, and seldom works to advantage, It is usually best 
to set your camera almost on a level with the animal's head. 

It is not at all difficult to get pictures of the semi-tame ani¬ 
mals which are found around most vacation spots. Squirrels, 
chipmunks, bluejays, etc., make excellent subjects and you 
gain additional prestige by becoming a photographer of 
wild animals. Select a sunny spot and toss a few bread 
crumbs there. Focus your camera carefully and wait. When 
the victim comes along and picks up his free meal—click, 
and you got 'im. 

Some very amusing animal subjects can be found in zoos, 
and the enthusiastic animal photographer should not fail to 
take advantage of the opportunities offered. There are dozens 
of subjects that are good for a hearty laugh. The fellow in 
the lower left serves as an example. 

[38] 



National Graflexed by Major A W. Stevens 


Here is a successful exception to the rule stated on page 37. The picture is given a hum¬ 
orous twist because the dog is so blithely ignoring the attempt of the little girl to direct 
his attention elsewhere. This composition would not be satisfactory, however, if we could 
see what the young lady is pointing to. Our eye would then jump over to that object and 
our attention would be divided between two points of interest 
Such a situation is to be avoided 


[39] 










Camp Fire Pictures 


No self-respecting photographer would dream of com¬ 
ing back from a camping trip without one or two shots 
made around the camp fire. There is nothing at all difficult 
about the making of such pictures. Proceed as follows. Set 
the camera on a tripod, or some firm support so that it will 
be sure to remain steady during the long exposure re¬ 
quired. Arrange your subjects so that they are as close to 
the fire as they can be and still remain comfortable. This 
is done so that as much light from the fire as possible will 
reach each subject. Direct them to look at the fire rather 
than at the camera, for if the faces are turned away from 
the fire they will not be illuminated. The amount of ex¬ 
posure required will depend upon how large and brilliant 
the camp fire is. The center picture on this page required 
an exposure of 3 seconds at F:8, using Agfa Superpan film. 
By the way, be sure to use panchromatic film. The light 
from the fire is made up largely of red, and as you recall, 
orthochromatic films are not sensitive to red. Caution your 
subjects to remain still until they hear the second click of 
the shutter. Set your shutter on time. Press it once to open 
the shutter and a second time to close it. Give an exposure 
of from 3 to 5 seconds, using the setup shoym in the center 
picture as a guide. However, as will be observed, a camp 
fire picture made in this manner is not entirely satisfac¬ 
tory. There is not enough detail shown in the figures. 

Greatly improved pictures, such as that shown in the 
lower photograph, can be obtained by using photoflash 
bulbs. The top illustration shows the manner in which the 
photoflash equipment is used. It is extremely easy to op¬ 
erate and is perfectly safe. Photoflash lamps provide a 
single, intense flash of light when an electric current is 
passed through them. In the field the current is supplied 
from a flashlight battery which is located in the handle of 
the flashlamp. The lamps cannot be used a second time. 
The flash, which lasts for about 1/50 second, takes place 
entirely within the bulb without smoke or noise. 


Do not attempt to use photoflash bulbs without a re¬ 
flector behind them. (See top illustration.) Without a re¬ 
flector only about one-fourth of the light will reach your 
subject. For average picture-making at night at distances of not more than 12 feet we recom¬ 
mend the No. 20 photoflash bulb which sells for 25 cents. To make an exposure by photoflash, 
get the camera set up, your subjects in place, your focus carefully checked. Set the shutter 
on time, open it, fire the flash and close the shutter immediately. Although your shutter has 
been open for about a second or two the exposure is really made at 1/50 second, the duration 
of the flash, since there is no other light that is strong enough to affect the film. For exposures 
out of doors with Panchromatic film, and the No. 20 bulb, set your lens aperture as follows' 
With the camera 6 feet from subject, use stop F:11. at 8 feet, F 8. at 12 feet F 6.3 


[ 40 i 



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Flowers 

Flower pictures are, of course, made in the same way as are any 
other photographs, but more careful attention must be given to cer¬ 
tain aspects of the work. On this page we call attention to those points. 

1. Equipment. The loveliest flower photographs are almost invari¬ 
ably close-ups, showing only a few blossoms, but revealing the struc¬ 
ture and detail most minutely. Such pictures are extremely fascinat¬ 
ing for they reveal to our eyes the marvelously delicate construction of 
the blossoms, something most of us will never have seen before. Look 
at the top picture to the left and notice how unsatisfactory it is. Just a 
confusing mass of blossoms. Then look at the picture just below. Now 
we can really see something. This is the sort of picture that we advise 
those interested in this field to work for. If you are at all successful we 
can guarantee that your pictures will be enjoyed by everyone who 
sees them. In order to make such close-ups the camera must be con¬ 
structed to focus at short distances, and it helps if you have a lens that 
will work at a very small stop, such as F:64, to get maximum depth of 
focus. The portrait attachment can be used with cameras of limited 
focus (see page 22). 

2. Arrangement. The flower photographer is faced with special 
problems of arranging his subject so that it may be photographed 
successfully. Blossoms are often mixed up with a mass of foliage so 
that if they are photographed just as they are the background of the 
picture would be a terrifying conglomeration of dark and light spots, 
among which the blossoms we wish to show would be lost. One way 
of avoiding this is shown in the third picture from the top. Slip a piece 
of grey card just-behind the blossom and let that act as your back¬ 
ground. If the blossom is quite light in tone use a medium dark shade 
of grey. If it is dark in color use a light shade of grey, so that the blos¬ 
som will be clearly distinguished from the background. Do not, how¬ 
ever, place a white blossom against a black background or a dark 
blossom against a white background, for such extreme contrast is 
usually disturbing. It is next to impossible to make close-up flower pic¬ 
tures out-of-doors on a windy day. As we have seen, close-up pictures 
require longer exposures, consequently our subject must be perfectly 
still or movement will show in the picture. We must either wait for a 
windless day or pick the blossoms we wish and photograph them in¬ 
doors by the light from a large window, or outdoors in a spot that is 
sheltered from the wind. If you are working indoors a window facing 
north is best and a large white cardboard (3x3 ft.) should be placed 
facing the window and on the opposite side of the flower arrangement 
so that it will reflect light onto the shadow side of the subject. 

3. Color Rendition. We must remember that our photographs are 
in black and white. The only means we have of distinguishing one 
color from another is by registering them as two different shades of 
grey on our films. There are, however, certain colors which appear 
quite distinct to the eye that will register as almost the same shade of 
grey on our films, unless we do something about it. In flower photog¬ 
raphy this problem arises for the most part with two main groups. 

1. Red and green will photograph close together. 

2. Light blue and white will photograph close together. 

What to do? First, always use panchromatic film for all flower 
photographs, since this is the only kind of film that is sensitive to all 
colors. The second picture from the bottom of this page is of a dark 
red flower against green leaves. Notice that the two are too close 
together in tone. The picture just below is of the same blossom, but it 
was taken with an "A" filter which is red in color. Therefore, to dis¬ 
tinguish red from green use the red "A" filter. To distinguish light blue 
from white use the yellow K-2 filter which has already been recom¬ 
mended for general landscape work. Remember that whenever a filter 
is used the exposure must be multiplied by the filter factor. See section 
on When to Use Filters. 

[42] 


By Ewing Galloway, N.Y. 


When taking pictures of blossoms against the sky remember to use the yellow filter rec¬ 
ommended in the section entitled When to Use Filters. If the filter is not used the tone of 
the sky will be too light and the blossoms will not show up well against it. 




r 44 3 


A 














Pictures For Fun 

In a very short time the beginner in photography who has started 
out without misinformation or misconceptions finds that the technical 
side of photography has become easy for him. He can go forth with 
his camera and be sure of returning with a high proportion of tech¬ 
nically good pictures. But as soon as he reaches that point he finds, 
often to his surprise, that he wants something more than simply a 
clear, sharp picture. He wants his pictures to contain that indefinable 
something that will make them interesting and attractive. There is 
nothing more precious and satisfying to the amateur photographer 
than that little gasp of surprise and appreciation which his friends 
utter when he shows them a particularly striking picture. That's some¬ 
thing to work fori Interesting photographs are purely and simply the 
product of the photographer's imagination. With practice he develops 
the ability to recognize the chance for a striking picture and to take 
instant advantage of that opportunity. It is quite impossible for any¬ 
one to tell you how to do this, but we can point out ways in which 
ordinary picture material may be made more interesting, and give 
some suggestions as to how to proceed. 

For example, pictures can be made under unusual lighting condi¬ 
tions to give a silhouette effect such as is seen in the upper picture at 
the right, or they can be made very late in the day to get a sunset 
effect such as is seen in the second picture. Notice how the low angle 
of light has transformed the surface of the water into a thing of great 
beauty. Keep two things in mind in making pictures such as these. Be 
sure that no direct light from the sun strikes your lens. Keep your expo¬ 
sures short so the silhouetted figures will appear strong and dark in 
the print. These two pictures would not require more than 1/100th 
second at F: 11 or F:16. Unusual camera angles will help a lot. Don't 
be afraid to point your camera upward or downward if you can ob¬ 
tain an interesting effect by doing so. The third picture from the top 
and the one at the left give some idea of what can be done. Very in¬ 
teresting pictures can be obtained by showing only a significant part 
of a whole scene. Pick out the part that really tells the story as has 
been done in the picture at the lower right. One final suggestion. Take 
pictures of your friends when they don't expect it. Very interesting 
expressions can be obtained in this way. It is easy to do when the sub¬ 
ject is asleep as is the case below, but by quietly awaiting your 
chance you can get completely natural unposed pictures even though 
your subject is wide awake. 

£45] 

Black Star Black Star 











Making the Most of Your Pictures 

The photographer has one means at his disposal for improving his pic¬ 
tures tremendously, after they have been taken. We hope that all readers of 
this book will soon learn to take advantage of this method, for if they do their 
pictures will be very much better than otherwise. The first principle of all pic¬ 
ture making, of all art in any kind, in fact, is simplicity. Simplicity means tell 
your story as simply and concisely as possible. Never include anything in 
your pictures that is not essential to their completeness. We cannot always 
photograph just exactly the part of a scene that we would choose. Often we 
cannot get close enough to our subjects. Sometimes the best point of view will 
include some object at one side of the picture that does not belong there at all. 
Don't let such circumstances prevent you from making the picture. As long as 
the unwanted object is to one side of your subject you can get rid of it later. 
Proceed in this manner. 

From a light piece of cardboard cut two pieces each shaped like the letter 
"L." When these are laid with the right angle corners opposite each other we 
have what amounts to an adjustable frame. If we push the comers toward 
each other the L's encompass a small area, if we move them apart, a larger 
one. 

When your prints are obtained from the finisher take these L's and lay 
them over the face of the print in the manner described. Move them in and 
out so that they cut off more or less of the picture on this side, more or less of 
the picture on that side, etc. See how much of the print you could trim away 
and still have all the essentials of your picture. Keep in mind the points we 
mentioned about spacing the principal object in your picture space. See if you 
cannot improve that spacing by trimming a little off one side or the other. 
Quite often you will find that only a very small part of your original picture 
will be much more satisfactory than the whole thing. It is not necessary to 
actually cut away parts of your contact print. Observe the three pictures 
below. 

The one at the left is a typical landscape scene with too much included 
The action is not clearly shown because it is too far away. The roadway is not 
properly a part of the picture at all since it leads the eye away from the figure 
and the swan which are the principal objects. 

By laying your L's over the print you find that the most attractive and well 
composed part of the picture is that shown at the lower right. 

Purchase from your photographic dealer a roll of Scotch Masking Tape. 
Stick strips of this tape over your film so that the preferred part of your picture 
is outlined in the manner shown in the center illustration. Then send this film, 
with the masking tape in place as shown, to your finisher and have a good 
size enlargement made. He will understand that the enlargement is to include 
only those parts inside the square of tape. You will be delighted at the great 
improvement which the enlarged and trimmed picture will show. 

The four pictures at the left show other instances of how trimming and 
enlarging can improve pictures tremendously. The Scotch Masking Tape will 
not injure the film in any way and can be easily pulled off, if desired. 

[46] 






00 YOU WANT TO KNOW MORE 
AOOUT PHOTOGRAPHY? 

• CAMERA CRAFT, The Monthly Photographic Magazine ... 

Will bring you the latest developments in camera work. Good, practical articles on every phase of 
photography. CAMERA CRAFT points the way to excellence in photographic endeavor. 

The CAMERA CRAFT MONTHLY COMPETITION offers a contest every month in which your 
photographs may compete with those of other enthusiastic photographers. The winning prints are 
reproduced in CAMERA CRAFT with instructive comment by the Editor. Rules will be sent free, upon 
request. Subscription price, 82.50 per year, U. S. A. and Canada. $3.00 per year Foreign. Send 25c 
in stamps for sample copy. 

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Offers a complete service on all photographic publications. If it’s a photographic book, we can supply 
it. Send for our complete FREE BOOK CATALOGUE, listing all the photographic publications, 
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i 

CAMERA CRAFT PUBLISHING COMPANY 

San Francisco, California 


> 


425 Bush Street 


THE MOST SENSATIONAL OFFER E 0 040.055.0611'/ 


Amazing New TllevieGutum! 

Takes Moving Pictures at less cost than Snapshots! 




10/A DAY PLAN! 


DON^ DELAY! MAIL COUPON TODAY! 


(ZompaAe tJvz6e fpajLutoU WITH ANY *30£ CAMERA! 


The precision-built, lifetime Uni- 
veX Cine '’8”—yours for only 10c 
a day! Never before have you heard 
of a fine 8 mm. movie camera sell¬ 
ing for less than $30! Never before 
has there been a movie camera using 
a 60c Film Roll. Never before have 
you had the opportunity of taking 
clear, sharp, true-to-life movies— 
FOR LESS THAN THE COST OF 
SNAPSHOTS! 

LIFETIME OF THRILLS! 

Don’t put off for another day the 
thrill of taking your own movies— 
any day and every day, as often as. 
you like! Now for only $9.95 you 
can own the UniveX Cine ”8”! 
Streamlined. Beautifully designed, 
finely balanced! Easy to load, sim¬ 
ple to operate—and so compact it 
can easily be held in one hand! 
With UniveX, anyone can take 
sharp, brilliant, theatre-quality 
movies that screen up to 34" x 24". 
All you do is press a button. 

A PRICELESS GIFT! 

A present to be treasured! A gift 
that will bring a lifetime of happi¬ 
ness and enjoyment! Give the Uni¬ 
veX Cine "8” for birthday, wed¬ 
ding, graduation or going - away 
present! We will send the UniveX 
Cine "8’’ to anyone you wish, and 
you can pay for it on the easy Mod¬ 
ern lOc-a-day plan! 

USES 60* FILM! 

UniveX Cine "8” is the only movie 
camera in the wbrld that uses the 
30-ft. UniveX Cine Film that’s 
available all over the country at only 


Backed by 
Written 
Guarantee 


60c per roll—that takes as many 
scenes as 60 feet of expensive 16 
mm. film! Think of taking movies 
at a total cost of only 6c per scene 
—including processing! Think of 
the thrill of making and showing 
movies that cost less than snap¬ 
shots ! 

ONLY PROJECTOR 
UNDER $26! 

The UniveX Projector is the lowest 
priced 8 mm. movie projector in the 
world. Takes all 8 mm. film, including 
professionally-made movies. 15 minutes 
continuous projection capacity; and 20 
other impor¬ 
tant features 
heretofore 
found only in 
the highest 
priced projec¬ 
tors. Complete 
with lamp. 


ONE YEAR WRITTEN GUARANTEE! 

The UniveX Cine "8” is accompanied by written guarantee 
bond of the Universal Camera Corporation—the largest 
unit manufacturers of cameras in the world. This bond 
accompanies your camera and protects you against any 
and every mechanical defect for a period of one year. In 
addition it is sold by us with an absolute money-back 
guarantee that if it does not live up to your highest ex¬ 
pectations you can return it and we will refund your money 
without question or argument. You yourself are the judge 
and jury! Don’t delay any longer! Start enjoying the 
thrills that come with owning a fine movie camera. 
Doubly enjoyable when you can buy it for one-third the 
price of any other 8 mm. cameras and on the easy 10c a 
day- plan. Mail coupon today for free literature illus¬ 
trating and describing the sensational UniveX Cine "8" 
Movie Camera and giving complete details of our easy 
10c a day plan—$3 a month! 

Modern Camera* Exchange, lnc„ New York, N. Y. 


ACTN0WIPRICESG0INGUP! 

D.on't miss this opportunity 
to realize your dreams . . . 
to own a lifetime, preci¬ 
sion-built movie camera! 

Due to steadily increasing 
material and labor costs, 
these low prices may not 
be maintained. Your Uni- . _ 

veX may cost you more UnivoX Cine "J," 

later on! Mail coupon to- showing its sleek 

day—and learnhowyoucan streamlined body, 

own this amazing movie Note the self-read- 
camera fer only 10c a day. jog exposure table 
on the camera. 

1 


Winding Key, Re¬ 
lease Button, De¬ 
tachable Lens Bar¬ 
rel, View Pinder, 
Footage Indicator. 


Easy to load and 
unload. Even a 
child can take 
movies with this 
sensational UniveX 
Cine "8." 


THIS IS NOT 
AN OROItl 


Modern Camera Exchange, Inc. 

1270 Sixth Are. (Radio City), 

Dept. 13, New York City. 

Without obligation on my 
part, send me free literature 
describing the new UniveX 

Movie Equipment and complete details of your liberal 
10c a day plan. 

Name.,.. 

Address. 


Town.State. 

If you want the movie equipment IMMEDIATELY and 
-prefer to buy for cash, enclose check or money-order with 
coupon, $9.95 for UniveX Cine "8"—$14.95 for UniveX 
Projector. We pay all delivery charges. If not completely 
► satisfied, you can return purchase within 30 days and 
money will be refunded. 




















